Unveiling ZIF-8 nucleation mechanisms through molecular simulation: role of temperature, solvent and reactant concentration

Abstract

Synthesizing new metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) is a challenging task, as the size, morphology, polymorph and type and number of defects present on the synthesis product may depend on many variables, including temperature, solvent, concentration and nature of reactants, among others. A deeper understanding on how synthesis conditions determine the obtained material is crucial to optimize the use of resources when synthesizing new MOFs. In this contribution, we study the impact of changing concentration, solvent and temperature on the molecular level mechanisms of the solvothermal nucleation process of ZIF-8 relying on molecular dynamics simulations using a force field that incorporates metal-ligand reactivity. We find that the nucleation is faster when the synthesis is performed in dimethylsulfoxide than when it is performed in methanol, in alignment with experimental observations. In the early steps of the nucleation process, we observe the formation of linear oligomers containing metal ions and ligands, which start forming cycles later on. All simulations lead to the formation of a final state that is highly-connected and partially amorphous, which could be correlated to an intermediate species observed in direct experiments. The mechanism of formation of this phase mainly consists of the merging of smaller nuclei. Even though increasing temperature and the reactants concentration lead to a similar nucleation speedup, there are differences in ring populations and lifetimes within the highly-connected amorphous intermediate phases that are formed in each case. Finally, important differences in the free energy of Zn-2-methylimidazolate versus Zn-imidazolate subsequent binding events are revealed and discussed.