Particle Mechanics from Local Energy Conservation

Abstract

We develop a formulation of particle mechanics in which the functional relation between force and kinetic energy is derived directly from local conservation mechanical energy $E$, rather than postulated through Newton's second law or a variational principle. Starting from the instantaneous condition $\dot{E}=0$, imposed as a pointwise constraint along a particle trajectory, we obtain a generalized force law that does not assume a specific kinetic-energy function, momentum-velocity relation, or equation of motion. The resulting inertial response naturally decomposes into a component parallel to the acceleration, responsible for changes in kinetic energy, and a transverse component that preserves energy while altering the direction of motion. Imposing rotational equivariance constrains the geometric structure of the force law, while the relativity principle between inertial reference frames further restricts its admissible realizations. In strictly one-dimensional motion, inertial-frame equivalence implies invariance of the total force under inertial boosts; together with local energy conservation, this uniquely fixes the functional form of kinetic energy and momentum. Galilean invariance selects the Newtonian expressions, whereas Lorentz invariance yields the relativistic ones. The framework unifies conservative and non-conservative (yet non-dissipative) dynamics at the single-particle level and clarifies the precise conditions under which energy-based and variational formulations of mechanics are dynamically equivalent. Newtonian and relativistic mechanics thus emerge as symmetry-selected realizations of a common energy-conserving force-energy structure.