Fate of Secondary Droplets Produced by High-speed Raindrops Interacting with a Liquid Pool

Han-Hsiang Kuo; Xuanting Hao

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arXiv · 2604.10491

Fate of Secondary Droplets Produced by High-speed Raindrops Interacting with a Liquid Pool

Han-Hsiang Kuo·Xuanting Hao

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Abstract

Secondary droplets produced by interactions between falling fluid drops and a liquid pool play a significant role in engineering applications and geophysical processes in nature. This study uses direct numerical simulations to investigate the dynamics of secondary droplets generated by raindrop-liquid pool interactions. The raindrop parameters feature a realistic speed of 7 m/s, effective diameters of 1-4 mm, and surface tension values ranging from $25\%$ to twice the typical air-water interface value. The numerical configurations include both a single raindrop and two raindrops separated by distances between two and four times the raindrop diameter. The secondary droplet size distribution, $N_d$, is found to scale with the droplet radius, $r_s$, as $N_d(r_s)\propto r_s^{-5/2}$, with additional dependencies on surface tension and raindrop diameter. When normalized according to this new scaling law, the droplet size distribution obtained from simulations with different parameter values collapses onto a single curve. Analysis of the impact morphology reveals distinct stages of raindrop interactions and identifies the formation and breakup of a central liquid film. Spatial and temporal analyses of the secondary droplets show that raindrop interaction can influence both the percentage of droplets captured by the cavity and the duration over which they re-merge with the pool. These behaviors arise from the combined effects of differences in the birth times of secondary droplets of various sizes and aerodynamic forcing associated with the cavity airflow.

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Han-Hsiang Kuo, Xuanting Hao. 2026-04-12. Fate of Secondary Droplets Produced by High-speed Raindrops Interacting with a Liquid Pool. https://arxiv.org/abs/2604.10491

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