Training Language Models for Bilateral Trade with Private Information

Abstract

Bilateral bargaining under incomplete information provides a controlled testbed for evaluating large language model (LLM) agent capabilities. Bilateral trade demands individual rationality, strategic surplus maximization, and cooperation to realize gains from trade. We develop a structured bargaining environment where LLMs negotiate via tool calls within an event-driven simulator, separating binding offers from natural-language messages to enable automated evaluation. The environment serves two purposes: as a benchmark for frontier models and as a training environment for open-weight models via reinforcement learning. In benchmark experiments, a round-robin tournament among five frontier models (15,000 negotiations) reveals that effective strategies implement price discrimination through sequential offers. Aggressive anchoring, calibrated concession, and temporal patience correlate with the highest surplus share and deal rate. Accommodating strategies that concede quickly disable price discrimination in the buyer role, yielding the lowest surplus capture and deal completion. Stronger models scale their behavior proportionally to item value, maintaining performance across price tiers; weaker models perform well only when wide zones of possible agreement offset suboptimal strategies. In training experiments, we fine-tune Qwen3 (8B, 14B) via supervised fine-tuning (SFT) followed by Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO) against a fixed frontier opponent. These stages optimize competing objectives: SFT approximately doubles surplus share but reduces deal rates, while RL recovers deal rates but erodes surplus gains, reflecting the reward structure. SFT also compresses surplus variation across price tiers, which generalizes to unseen opponents, suggesting that behavioral cloning instills proportional strategies rather than memorized price points.