Metal-free heteroatom doping of carbon nitride for enhanced photocatalytic hydrogen peroxide production

Abstract

The photocatalytic production of hydrogen peroxide (H$_2$O$_2$) from water is a promising strategy for solar-to-chemical energy conversion. Herein, we investigate the effect of metal-free heteroatom doping (B, O, P, and S) on the structural, electronic, and photocatalytic properties of graphitic carbon nitride (C$_3$N$_4$) for H$_2$O$_2$ production under simulated solar irradiation. While pristine C$_3$N$_4$ exhibits stacked nanosheets, doping induces disorder, partial exfoliation, and changes in interlayer spacing, confirming successful heteroatom incorporation and modification of the electronic and optical properties. Photocatalytic experiments reveal that H$_2$O$_2$ production strongly depends on the sacrificial agent, pH, and reactive-species scavengers. All doped catalysts show enhanced activity compared to pristine C$_3$N$_4$, with 9.6-, 14.8-, 11.0-, and 16.4-fold increases for B-, P-, O-, and S-doped C$_3$N$_4$, respectively. S-doped C$_3$N$_4$ achieved the highest H$_2$O$_2$ production rate of 3022.1 $\mu$mol h$^{-1}$ g$^{-1}$ and an apparent quantum yield of 8.1\%, attributed to improved charge separation and optimized selectivity. Mechanistic studies indicate that oxygen activation mainly follows a two-electron (2e$^{-}$) pathway driven by charge-carrier modulation and reactive oxygen species dynamics, with singlet oxygen and photogenerated holes playing a dominant role. In addition, S-doped C$_3$N$_4$ retained over 95\% of its activity after five cycles. These results highlight metal-free heteroatom doping as an effective strategy for sustainable photocatalytic H$_2$O$_2$ generation.