Hydrogen and Helium Dissolution, Outgassing, and Loss in Evolving Sub-Neptune Magma Oceans: Examining Demographic Features and Radius Evolution

Abstract

Sub-Neptunes' molten interiors are expected to accommodate large quantities of volatiles, potentially altering their radius evolution. Previous studies have examined this effect in isolation with simplified evolution modeling, often assuming idealized interior and atmospheric conditions. To address this limitation, we introduce SEAMIST, a unified evolution model for sub-Neptunes and super-Earths that self-consistently combines, for the first time, interior structure, cooling, rock/iron solidification, boil-off, photoevaporation, H/He dissolution, and atmospheric composition. SEAMIST considers both a partially soluble case, in which hydrogen partitions into the magma ocean with a fraction set by mantle-envelope boundary conditions, and a fully miscible case, in which hydrogen may fully dissolve into the magma ocean at high temperatures. We identify a novel catastrophic boil-off mechanism, triggered by a positive feedback between hydrogen outgassing and mass loss that can operate billions of years after disk dispersal. In partially soluble models, the impact of H/He dissolution on radius evolution is modest. This contrasts with previous expectations, as we find that increasing hydrogen abundance from outgassing enhances mass-loss efficiency, counterbalancing volatile replenishment from the rock/iron interior. Fully miscible hydrogen, in contrast, significantly enhances envelope survival especially around low-mass stars. Overall, at intermediate to low masses, mass-radius curves from partially soluble models match observed distributions. The fully miscible case predicts a pronounced radius peak and excess planets around low stellar masses that appear inconsistent with current observations, although it reproduces the observed radius ``cliff" near 4$R_\oplus$ at higher masses. Our results suggest that high metallicity may explain the cliff, although alternatives cannot be entirely ruled out.