Exponential Advantage of Quantum over Classical References in Leakage Detection

Abstract

Leakage from a known encoding subspace can be detected by projection. However, the corresponding projector is unavailable when the encoding subspace is not classically specified. Here we show how independent quantum references prepared by the same encoder enable leakage detection without a classical description of the encoding. A coherent measurement on the references and a single message leaves every state within the two-dimensional encoding subspace, including its entanglement with a remote system, exactly unchanged. We derive the exact detection law for $M$ ideal references and prove optimality among tests with zero false alarm for every encoding. For orthogonal leakage, the miss probability is asymptotic to $4/M$, independent of the ambient dimension $d$. Measuring all references first, even collectively, gives zero detection at every finite budget under the same zero-false-alarm requirement. For a fixed detection target between zero and one, the optimal measurement-first cost is $Θ(d/ε)$ at sufficiently small tolerance $ε$ on normal false alarm and conditional disturbance; a dimension-independent coherent budget suffices. For one logical qubit encoded in three physical qubits, seven coherent references achieve at least $50\%$ orthogonal-leakage detection, whereas any measurement-first receiver needs at least $588$ under the same $1\%$ normal tolerances. Quantum references thus support leakage checks without classical reconstruction, with a sample advantage exponential in the number of physical qubits.