Dynamic morphing of non-Euclidean active shells enabled by flutter under a steady stimulus

Abstract

Synthetic active surfaces are usually designed to attain a prescribed static configuration, with dynamic shape changes typically requiring modulation of the actuation. We show that thin active shells can instead sustain dynamic morphing under a steady stimulus by harnessing flutter instability. We focus on polyelectrolyte hydrogel shells immersed in a viscous fluid and subjected to a constant and uniform electric field, and specialize the non-Euclidean framework for thin structures to account for field-induced activity through a spontaneous curvature evolving in time with the system configuration. Examining elliptic plates and cylindrical shells as test cases, we integrate linear stability analyses with nonlinear simulations to first locate the onset of flutter and then unveil the resulting dynamics, characterized by thrust-generating shape changes. In all cases, the emergent behavior stems from the interplay between active reconfiguration and elasticity in the fluid environment. For plates, the problem is purely flexural in the linear regime, while the competition between bending and stretching becomes crucial in selecting the ensuing shapes and swimming trajectories at large deformations. Conversely, for cylindrical shells bending and stretching are coupled at all levels, with the latter becoming essential to sustain flutter. Experiments on millimeter-sized hydrogel plates provide tangible support for our theoretical findings through shape reconstructions performed by combining digital image correlation with optical stereo microscopy. Flutter thus offers a route to untethered soft robotic and microfluidic devices based on active shells and operating under a stimulus carrying neither an intrinsic frequency nor a characteristic length scale.