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A. M. Watson

Publications and source records attributed to A. M. Watson.

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Theoretical Description Of GRB 160625B with Wind-to-ISM Transition and Implications for a Magnetized Outflow

GRB 160625B, one of the brightest bursts in recent years, was simultaneously observed by Fermi and Swift satellites, and ground-based optical telescopes in three different events separated by long periods of time. In this paper the non-thermal multiwavelength observations of GRB 160625B are described and a transition phase from wind-type-like medium to interstellar medium between the early (event II) and the late (event III) afterglow is found. The multiwavelength observations of the early afterglow are consistent with the afterglow evolution starting at $\sim$ 150 s in a stellar wind medium whereas the observations of the late afterglow are consistent with the afterglow evolution in interstellar medium (ISM). The wind-to-ISM transition is calculated to be at $\sim 8\times 10^3$ s when the jet has decelerated, at a distance of $\sim$ 1 pc from the progenitor. Using the standard external shock model, the synchrotron and synchrotron self-Compton emission from reverse shock is required to model the GeV $γ$-ray and optical observations in the early afterglow, and synchrotron radiation from the adiabatic forward shock to describe the X-ray and optical observations in the late afterglow. The derived values of the magnetization parameter, the slope of the fast decay of the optical flash and the inferred magnetic fields suggest that Poynting flux-dominated jet models with arbitrary magnetization could account for the spectral properties exhibited by GRB 160625B.

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Photometric Observations of Supernova 2013cq Associated with GRB 130427A

We observed the afterglow of GRB 130427A with the RATIR instrument on the 1.5-m Harold L. Johnson telescope of the Observatorio Astronómico Nacional on Sierra San Pedro Mártir. Our homogenous $griZYJH$ photometry extends from the night of burst to three years later. We fit a model for the afterglow. There is a significant positive residual which matches the behavior of SN 1998bw in the $griZ$ filters; we suggest that this is a photometric signature of the supernova SN 2013cq associated with the GRB. The peak absolute magnitude of the supernova is $M_r=-18.43\pm0.11$.

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Optical and near-infrared observations of SN 2013dx associated with GRB 130702A

We present optical and near-infrared light curves and optical spectra of SN 2013dx, associated with the nearby (redshift 0.145) gamma-ray burst GRB 130702A. The prompt isotropic gamma-ray energy released from GRB 130702A is measured to be $E_{γ,iso}=6.4_{-1.0}^{+1.3}\times10^{50}$erg (1keV-10MeV in the rest frame), placing it intermediate between low-luminosity GRBs like GRB 980425/SN 1998bw and the broader cosmological population. We compare the observed $g'r'i'z'$ light curves of SN 2013dx to a SN 1998bw template, finding that SN 2013dx evolves ~20% faster (steeper rise time), with a comparable peak luminosity. Spectroscopically, SN 2013dx resembles other broad-lined Type Ic supernovae, both associated with (SN 2006aj and SN 1998bw) and lacking (SN 1997ef, SN 2007I, and SN 2010ah) gamma-ray emission, with photospheric velocities around peak of ~21,000km s$^{-1}$. We construct a quasi-bolometric ($g'r'i'z'yJ$) light curve for SN 2013dx, only the fifth GRB-associated SN with extensive NIR coverage and the third with a bolometric light curve extending beyond $Δt>40$d. Together with the measured photospheric velocity, we derive basic explosion parameters using simple analytic models. We infer a $^{56}$Ni mass of $M_{\mathrm{Ni}}=0.37\pm0.01$M$_{\odot}$, an ejecta mass of $M_{\mathrm{ej}}=3.1\pm0.1$M$_{\odot}$, and a kinetic energy of $E_{\mathrm{K}}=(8.2\pm0.43)\times10^{51}$ erg (statistical uncertainties only), consistent with previous GRB-associated SNe. When considering the ensemble population of GRB-associated SNe, we find no correlation between the mass of synthesized $^{56}$Ni and high-energy properties, despite clear predictions from numerical simulations that $M_{\mathrm{Ni}}$ should correlate with the degree of asymmetry. On the other hand, $M_{\mathrm{Ni}}$ clearly correlates with the kinetic energy of the supernova ejecta across a wide range of core-collapse events.

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Happy Birthday Swift: Ultra-long GRB141121A and its broad-band Afterglow

We present our extensive observational campaign on the Swift-discovered GRB141121A, al- most ten years after its launch. Our observations covers radio through X-rays, and extends for more than 30 days after discovery. The prompt phase of GRB 141121A lasted 1410 s and, at the derived redshift of z = 1.469, the isotropic energy is Eγ,iso = 8.0x10^52 erg. Due to the long prompt duration, GRB141121A falls into the recently discovered class of UL-GRBs. Peculiar features of this burst are a flat early-time optical light curve and a radio-to-X-ray rebrightening around 3 days after the burst. The latter is followed by a steep optical-to-X-ray decay and a much shallower radio fading. We analyze GRB 141121A in the context of the standard forward-reverse shock (FS,RS) scenario and we disentangle the FS and RS contributions. Finally, we comment on the puzzling early-time (t ~3 d) behavior of GRB 141121A, and suggest that its interpretation may require a two-component jet model. Overall, our analysis confirms that the class of UL-GRBs represents our best opportunity to firmly establish the prominent emission mechanisms in action during powerful GRB explosions, and future missions (like SVOM, XTiDE, or ISS-Lobster) will provide many more of such objects.

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The central engine of GRB 130831A and the energy breakdown of a relativistic explosion

Gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) are the most luminous explosions in the universe, yet the nature and physical properties of their energy sources are far from understood. Very important clues, however, can be inferred by studying the afterglows of these events. We present optical and X-ray observations of GRB 130831A obtained by Swift, Chandra, Skynet, RATIR, Maidanak, ISON, NOT, LT and GTC. This burst shows a steep drop in the X-ray light-curve at $\simeq 10^5$ s after the trigger, with a power-law decay index of $α\sim 6$. Such a rare behaviour cannot be explained by the standard forward shock (FS) model and indicates that the emission, up to the fast decay at $10^5$ s, must be of "internal origin", produced by a dissipation process within an ultrarelativistic outflow. We propose that the source of such an outflow, which must produce the X-ray flux for $\simeq 1$ day in the cosmological rest frame, is a newly born magnetar or black hole. After the drop, the faint X-ray afterglow continues with a much shallower decay. The optical emission, on the other hand, shows no break across the X-ray steep decrease, and the late-time decays of both the X-ray and optical are consistent. Using both the X-ray and optical data, we show that the emission after $\simeq 10^5$ s can be explained well by the FS model. We model our data to derive the kinetic energy of the ejecta and thus measure the efficiency of the central engine of a GRB with emission of internal origin visible for a long time. Furthermore, we break down the energy budget of this GRB into the prompt emission, the late internal dissipation, the kinetic energy of the relativistic ejecta, and compare it with the energy of the associated supernova, SN 2013fu.

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A detailed study of the optical attenuation of gamma-ray bursts in the Swift era

We present optical and near-infrared (NIR) photometry of 28 gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) detected by the \textit{Swift} satellite and rapidly observed by the Reionization and Transients Infrared/Optical (RATIR) camera. We compare the optical flux at fiducial times of 5.5 and 11 hours after the high-energy trigger to that in the X-ray regime to quantify optical darkness. 46$\pm$9 per cent (13/28) of all bursts in our sample and 55$\pm$10 per cent (13/26) of long GRBs are optically dark, which is statistically consistently with previous studies. Fitting RATIR optical and NIR spectral energy distributions (SEDs) of 19 GRBs, most (6/7) optically dark GRBs either occur at high-redshift ($z>4.5$) or have a high dust content in their host galaxies ($A_{\rm V} > 0.3$). Performing K-S tests, we compare the RATIR sample to those previously presented in the literature, finding our distributions of redshift, optical darkness, host dust extinction and X-ray derived column density to be consistent. The one reported discrepancy is with host galaxy dust content in the BAT6 sample, which appears inconsistent with our sample and other previous literature. Comparing X-ray derived host galaxy hydrogen column densities to host galaxy dust extinction, we find that GRBs tend to occur in host galaxies with a higher metal-to-dust ratio than our own Galaxy, more akin to the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds. Finally, to mitigate time evolution of optical darkness, we measure $β_{\rm OX,rest}$ at a fixed rest frame time, $t_{\rm rest}=1.5$ hours and fixed rest frame energies in the X-ray and optical regimes. Choosing to evaluate optical flux at $λ_{\rm rest}=0.25~μ$m, we remove high-redshift as a source of optical darkness, demonstrating that optical darkness must result from either high-redshift, dust content in the host galaxy along the GRB sight line, or a combination of the two.

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A Trio of GRB-SNe: GRB 120729A, GRB 130215A / SN 2013ez and GRB 130831A / SN 2013fu

We present optical and near-infrared (NIR) photometry for three gamma-ray burst supernovae (GRB-SNe): GRB 120729A, GRB 130215A / SN 2013ez and GRB 130831A / SN 2013fu. In the case of GRB 130215A / SN 2013ez, we also present optical spectroscopy at t-t0=16.1 d, which covers rest-frame 3000-6250 Angstroms. Based on Fe II (5169) and Si (II) (6355), our spectrum indicates an unusually low expansion velocity of 4000-6350 km/s, the lowest ever measured for a GRB-SN. Additionally, we determined the brightness and shape of each accompanying SN relative to a template supernova (SN 1998bw), which were used to estimate the amount of nickel produced via nucleosynthesis during each explosion. We find that our derived nickel masses are typical of other GRB-SNe, and greater than those of SNe Ibc that are not associated with GRBs. For GRB 130831A / SN 2013fu, we use our well-sampled R-band light curve (LC) to estimate the amount of ejecta mass and the kinetic energy of the SN, finding that these too are similar to other GRB-SNe. For GRB 130215A, we take advantage of contemporaneous optical/NIR observations to construct an optical/NIR bolometric LC of the afterglow. We fit the bolometric LC with the millisecond magnetar model of Zhang & Meszaros (2001), which considers dipole radiation as a source of energy injection to the forward shock powering the optical/NIR afterglow. Using this model we derive an initial spin period of P=12 ms and a magnetic field of B=1.1 x 10^15 G, which are commensurate with those found for proposed magnetar central engines of other long-duration GRBs.

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Identifying high-redshift GRBs with RATIR

We present a template fitting algorithm for determining photometric redshifts, $z_{\rm phot}$, of candidate high-redshift gamma-ray bursts (GRBs). Using afterglow photometry, obtained by the Reionization And Transients InfraRed (RATIR) camera, this algorithm accounts for the intrinsic GRB afterglow spectral energy distribution (SED), host dust extinction and the effect of neutral hydrogen (local and cosmological) along the line of sight. We present the results obtained by this algorithm and RATIR photometry of GRB 130606A, finding a range of best fit solutions $5.6 < z_{\rm phot} < 6.0$ for models of several host dust extinction laws (none, MW, LMC and SMC), consistent with spectroscopic measurements of the redshift of this GRB. Using simulated RATIR photometry, we find our algorithm provides precise measures of $z_{\rm phot}$ in the ranges $4 < z_{\rm phot} \lesssim 8$ and $9 < z_{\rm phot} < 10$ and can robustly determine when $z_{\rm phot}>4$. Further testing highlights the required caution in cases of highly dust extincted host galaxies. These tests also show that our algorithm does not erroneously find $z_{\rm phot} < 4$ when $z_{\rm sim}>4$, thereby minimizing false negatives and allowing us to rapidly identify all potential high-redshift events.

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Benchmark problems for continuum radiative transfer. High optical depths, anisotropic scattering, and polarisation

Solving the continuum radiative transfer equation in high opacity media requires sophisticated numerical tools. In order to test the reliability of such tools, we present a benchmark of radiative transfer codes in a 2D disc configuration. We test the accuracy of seven independently developed radiative transfer codes by comparing the temperature structures, spectral energy distributions, scattered light images, and linear polarisation maps that each model predicts for a variety of disc opacities and viewing angles. The test cases have been chosen to be numerically challenging, with midplane optical depths up 10^6, a sharp density transition at the inner edge and complex scattering matrices. We also review recent progress in the implementation of the Monte Carlo method that allow an efficient solution to these kinds of problems and discuss the advantages and limitations of Monte Carlo codes compared to those of discrete ordinate codes. For each of the test cases, the predicted results from the radiative transfer codes are within good agreement. The results indicate that these codes can be confidently used to interpret present and future observations of protoplanetary discs.

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Hierarchical Triggering of Star Formation by Superbubbles in W3/W4

It is generally believed that expanding superbubbles and mechanical feedback from massive stars trigger star formation, because there are numerous examples of superbubbles showing secondary star formation at their edges. However, while these systems show an age sequence, they do not provide strong evidence of a causal relationship. The W3/W4 Galactic star-forming complex suggests a three-generation hierarchy: the supergiant shell structures correspond to the oldest generation; these triggered the formation of IC 1795 in W3, the progenitor of a molecular superbubble; which in turn triggered the current star-forming episodes in the embedded regions W3-North, W3-Main, and W3-OH. We present UBV photometry and spectroscopic classifications for IC 1795, which show an age of 3 - 5 Myr. This age is intermediate between the reported 6 - 20 Myr age of the supergiant shell system, and the extremely young ages (10^4 - 10^5 yr) for the embedded knots of ultracompact HII regions, W3-North, W3-Main, and W3-OH. Thus, an age sequence is indeed confirmed for the entire W3/W4 hierarchical system. This therefore provides some of the first convincing evidence that superbubble action and mechanical feedback are indeed a triggering mechanism for star formation.

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HST/WFPC2 Images of the GG Tauri Circumbinary Disk

We present the first visible wavelength images of the GG Tauri circumbinary ring, obtained with the Hubble Space Telescope's Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2. Scattered light from the ring is detected in both V and I band images. The images show that the ring is smooth, except for a small gap that could be a shadow caused by material between the stars and the ring. The spokes seen extending from the stars to the ring in ground-based adaptive optics images are not seen in our data, which suggests that they may be image artifacts. The nearside/farside surface brightness ratio is 6.9 in I band, consistent with forward scattering by small dust grains. The azimuth of the peak ring surface brightness appears offset by 13 degrees from the azimuth closest to us, as seen in previous near-IR HST observations. This may indicate that the ring is warped or somehow shadowed by the circumstellar disks. The color of the ring is redder than the combined light from the stars as observed by HST, confirming previous measurements that indicate that circumstellar disks may introduce extinction of light illuminating the ring. We detect a bright, compact arc of material 0.3 arcseconds from the secondary star at an azimuth opposite the primary. It appears to be too large to be a circumstellar disk and is not at the expected location for dust trapped at a Lagrange point.

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Stars & Gas in the Galaxy Pair II Zw 70/71

II Zw 71 (UGC 9562) was classified as a ``probable'' polar-ring galaxy in the Polar-Ring Catalog, based upon its optical appearance. We present 21 cm and optical observations of this galaxy and its companion, the blue star-forming dwarf II Zw 70. Our 21 cm observations show that 5e8 solar masses of HI is present in a polar ring orbiting II Zw 71, and show a spatially and kinematically contiguous streamer with 2.5e8 solar masses of HI gas between the two galaxies. This gaseous bridge, plus our observations of Halpha line emission in the polar ring and in II Zw 70, are strong evidence for an ongoing interaction between the two galaxies. However, the configuration of the streamer suggests that the polar ring itself may well have predated the current interaction, which then stimulated an outburst of star formation in the ring gas.

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Hubble Space Telescope Observations of the Draco Dwarf Spheroidal

We present an F606W-F814W color-magnitude diagram for the Draco dwarf spheroidal galaxy based on Hubble Space Telescope WFPC2 images. The luminosity function is well-sampled to 3 magnitudes below the turn-off. We see no evidence for multiple turnoffs and conclude that, at least over the field of the view of the WFPC2, star formation was primarily single-epoch. If the observed number of blue stragglers is due to extended star formation, then roughly 6% (upper limit) of the stars could be half as old as the bulk of the galaxy. The color difference between the red giant branch and the turnoff is consistent with an old population and is very similar to that observed in the old, metal-poor Galactic globular clusters M68 and M92. Despite its red horizontal branch, Draco appears to be older than M68 and M92 by 1.6 +/- 2.5 Gyrs, lending support to the argument that the ``second parameter'' which governs horizontal branch morphology must be something other than age. Draco's observed luminosity function is very similar to that of M68, and the derived initial mass function is consistent with that of the solar neighborhood.

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