arXiv subjects

Adrian M. Glauser

Publications and source records attributed to Adrian M. Glauser.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

arXiv2026

Cryogenic characterisation for the Nulling Interferometry Cryogenic Experiment (NICE)

The Nulling Interferometry Cryogenic Experiment (NICE) is an experimental testbed for the beam combiner of the Large Interferometer For Exoplanets (LIFE) space mission. Until now, progress on NICE has been confined to an ambient bench, where we have recorded progress in deep ($<10^{-5}$) nulls at wavelengths between 4 and 5 microns at 300 K. However, the ultimate goal and requirement of NICE is to repeat these measurements at the sensitivity levels expected for a planetary system, requiring deep cryogenic conditions at 15 K. Here, we describe the ``Ice Cube'' cryostat, a small version of the future NICE cryostat that is used for component and subsystem level cryogenic testing. This is interfaced with a measurement setup using a segmented aperture interferometer and a wavefront sensor. We will also describe the testing campaign for understanding the material and mounting challenges that will be faced when translating the warm bench to cryogenic operations.

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arXiv2026

A NICE (Nulling Interferometry Cryogenic Experiment) update: Beyond 1e-5 and towards cryogenic operation

The Nulling Interferometry Cryogenic Experiment (NICE) is a mid-infrared laboratory testbed at ETH Z\"urich that aims to not only reproduce the deep ($<1\times10^{-5}$) broadband nulls of the nulling testbeds of the early 2000s, but also at the required sensitivity levels expected for the LIFE space mission. This sensitivity enforces the experiment to go cryogenic at temperatures around 15 K; an ambitious task for an ultra-precise interferometer. We share our results of the ambient precursor experiment, demonstrating repeatable $<1\times10^{-5}$ nulls at a single wavelength and high throughput, and investigations into the nulling performance across a broader bandpass and with dual polarisation states. We will also highlight the push towards cryogenic operation, with the instalment of a new 15 K test cryostat that will inform our choices of materials and optomechanical mounting techniques.

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arXiv2026

Exploring Exoplanets with Interferometry

(Extract from the Executive Summary) Humanity stands at the threshold of answering one of its most profound questions: Does life exist beyond Earth? Ongoing and upcoming space missions, together with powerful ground-based instruments, have prepared the way for a transformational next step - the detailed characterization of Earth analogs orbiting Sun-like and other stars and the search for atmospheric biosignatures that may indicate life. Within this context, the European Space Agency's Voyage 2050 process has identified the direct detection of thermal emission from temperate terrestrial exoplanets in the mid-infrared (mid-IR) as a top scientific priority. The Large Interferometer For Exoplanets (LIFE) - a space-based, mid-IR nulling interferometer - is designed to meet this goal. LIFE will be capable of detecting climate-relevant gases such as CO$_2$ and H$_2$O, identifying classical biosignatures like O$_3$ and CH$_4$, and probing additional, non-classical biosignatures. It will also provide key data for determining planetary radius, albedo, and temperature, which are essential for assessing habitability. In parallel, the U.S. National Academy has recommended a complementary mission now called the Habitable Worlds Observatory (HWO) - a ~6-meter space telescope equipped with advanced coronagraphs to suppress starlight by a factor of ~10$^{10}$ across the visible and possibly into the near-infrared and near-ultraviolet. Together, LIFE and HWO offer synergistic capabilities, enabling a comprehensive and robust assessment of the prevalence of life-bearing exoplanets in our galactic neighbourhood - a first in human history. By uniting an international and interdisciplinary community of scientists and engineers, LIFE offers a credible pathway toward the direct detection and characterization of potentially habitable - and even inhabited - worlds.

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arXiv2026

A preliminary exploration of the effects of baseline length for the LIFE space mission

By aiming to find and characterise dozens of habitable exoplanets through the technique of nulling interferometry, the LIFE space mission will produce transformational science. One of the key parameters for such an interferometric mission is the nulling baseline length - the distance between nulled apertures, which past studies have assumed to be 10-100m. Advances in planet occurrence statistics and simulation tools allow us now to revisit this key assumption with significantly more detail, particularly with the intention to reduce the range of baselines considered due to mission implementation concerns. We utilise the LIFEsim mission simulator along with revised mathematical tools to identify whether the range of baselines could be reduced without significantly affecting planet yield and fringe tracking performance. Along the way, we also determine a new astrophysically motivated technique for choosing which baselines are optimal for a given science target. We find that indeed, LIFE could utilise a considerably shorter range of baselines, such as 25-80m, or even discrete baselines without much (<10%) loss of performance. Nevertheless, careful trade-offs between performance and implementation simplification must be made, especially considering any spectral weighting that may be required by the scientific goals, and the potential loss of target-specific baseline optimisation.

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arXiv2026

The Nulling Interferometry Cryogenic Experiment (NICE): Architecture, requirements, and preliminary warm precursor results

The success of the Large Interferometer For Exoplanets (LIFE) space mission depends on measuring the faint mid-infrared emission spectra of exoplanets while suppressing the glare of a host star. This requires an instrument capable of high-contrast nulling interferometry with exceptional sensitivity. While previous testbeds have proven the principle of deep, stable nulls, they have not combined high contrast with the high throughput and cryogenic operation required for LIFE. Here, we present the architecture of the Nulling Interferometry Cryogenic Experiment (NICE), a mid-infrared nulling testbed, to increase the technological readiness of LIFE. We derive the laboratory requirements necessary to validate the LIFE beam combiner and present the optical design of NICE. Finally, we report results from the ambient \enquote{Warm Bench} precursor, which has successfully demonstrated the required null depth ($< 10^{-5}$) using a polarized narrowband 4.7 um source, and the required throughput (> 17%) using one of the two nulling channels.

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arXiv2025

MINDS. Anatomy of a water-rich, inclined, brown dwarf disk: lack of abundant hydrocarbons

2MASS J04381486+2611399 (or J0438) is one of the few young brown dwarfs (BD) with a highly inclined ($i\!\sim\!70^\circ$) disk. Here we report results from JWST-MIRI MRS, HST-ACS and ALMA Band 7 observations. Despite its late spectral type (M7.25), the spectrum of J0438 resembles those of inner disks around earlier-type stars (K1-M5, T Tauri stars), with a volatile reservoir lacking hydrocarbons (except for acetylene, C$_2$H$_2$) and dominated by water. Other identified species are H$_2$, CO$_2$, HCN, [Ar$^{+}$], and [Ne$^{+}$]. The dominance of water over hydrocarbons is driven by multiple factors such as disk dynamics, young disk age, low accretion rate and possible inner disk clearing. J0438 appears highly dynamic, showing a seesaw-like variability and extended emission in H$_2 \,\,\, S$(1), $S$(3), $S$(5), [Ne$^{+}$] and CO ($J=3-2$). Interestingly, the CO emission reaches up to 400 au from the brown dwarf, suggesting ongoing infalling/outflowing activity impacting the disk chemistry. These observations underscore the combined power of MIRI, HST and ALMA in characterizing the chemical diversity and dynamics of brown dwarf disks.

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arXiv2025

Robust Data Interpretation for Perturbed Nulling Interferometers via Proper Handling of Correlated Errors

The detection and atmospheric characterization of potentially habitable, temperate terrestrial exoplanets using a space-based mid-infrared nulling interferometer is a major goal of contemporary astrophysics. A central part of the analysis of such an instrument are correlated errors arising from perturbations in the system. While previous studies have often treated their effects in a limited manner, we aim to treat them comprehensively here and argue that data whitening based on the covariance of these errors is a suitable method to mitigate their impact. We present a framework that quantitatively connects instrumental perturbations to performance metrics and develop two computational tools to support our analysis: PHRINGE, for the generation of synthetic nulling data, and LIFEsimMC, a new Monte Carlo-based end-to-end simulator for the Large Interferometer For Exoplanets (LIFE). Applying our framework to a reference observation of an Earth twin orbiting a Sun twin at 10 pc, we find that whitening is not only essential for a correct interpretation of the detection metric used in hypothesis testing, but also improves the estimates of the planetary properties. Moreover, our approach enables an estimation of the spectral covariance of the extracted planetary spectra, providing valuable additional input for future atmospheric retrievals. We therefore recommend incorporating the framework into performance assessments and requirement derivations for future nulling interferometers.

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arXiv2025

MINDS. Cha Hα 1, a brown dwarf with a hydrocarbon-rich disk

Context. Recent JWST observations have shown that brown dwarfs (BD) are chemically rich, offering valuable insights into giant planet formation. Aims. As part of the MIRI mid-INfrared Disk Survey (MINDS) JWST guaranteed time program, we aim to characterize the gas and dust composition of the disk around the brown dwarf [NC98] Cha HA 1, hereafter Cha H$α$ 1, in the mid-infrared. Methods. We obtain data from the MIRI Medium Resolution Spectrometer (MRS) from 4.9 to 28$μ$m. We use the dust fitting tool DuCK to investigate the dust composition and grain sizes while we identify and fit molecular emission using slab models. Results. Compared with disks around very low mass stars, clear silicate emission features are seen in this BD disk. In addition, JWST reveals a plethora of hydrocarbons, including C$_2$H$_2$, $^{13}$CCH$_2$, CH$_3$, CH$_4$, C$_2$H$_4$, C$_4$H$_2$, C$_3$H$_4$, C$_2$H$_6$, and C$_6$H$_6$ which suggest a disk with a gas C/O > 1. Additionally, we detect CO$_2$, $^{13}$CO$_2$, HCN, H$_2$, and H$_2$O. CO and OH are absent from the spectrum. The dust is dominated by large $\sim$4 $μ$m size amorphous silicates (MgSiO$_3$). We infer a small dust mass fraction ($>$10$\%$) of 5 $μ$m size crystalline forsterite. We do not detect polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Conclusions. Cha H$α$ 1 shows the most diverse chemistry seen to date in a BD protoplanetary disk, consisting of a strong dust feature, 12 carbon-bearing molecules plus H$_2$, and water. The diverse molecular environment offers a unique opportunity to test our understanding of BD disks chemistry and how it affects the possible planets forming in them.

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arXiv2025

Consequences of Non-Gaussian Instrumental Noise in Perturbed Nulling Interferometers

With the astrophysics community working towards the first observations and characterizations of Earth-like exoplanets, interest in space-based nulling interferometry has been renewed. This technique promises unique scientific and technical advantages by enabling direct mid-infrared observations. However, concept studies of nulling interferometers often overlook the impact of systematic noise caused by instrument perturbations. Earlier research introduced analytical and numerical models to address instrumental noise and, building on these results, we reproduce key simulations and report that the noise in the differential output of nulling interferometers follows a non-Gaussian distribution. The presence of non-Gaussian noise challenges the validity of classical hypothesis tests in detection performance estimates, as their reliance on Gaussian assumptions leads to overconfidence in detection thresholds. For the first time, we derive the true noise distribution of the differential output of a dual Bracewell nulling interferometer, demonstrating that it follows iterative convolutions of Bessel functions. Understanding this noise distribution enables a refined formulation of hypothesis testing in nulling interferometry, leading to a semi-analytical prediction of detection performance. This computationally efficient instrument model, implemented in a publicly available codebase, is designed for integration into science yield predictions for nulling interferometry mission concepts. It will play a key role in refining key mission parameters for the Large Interferometer For Exoplanets (LIFE).

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arXiv2025

MIRI-JWST mid-infrared direct imaging of the debris disk of HD106906

We report MIRI-JWST coronagraphic observations at 11.3 and 15.5 mic of the debris disk around the young star HD 106906. The observations were made to characterize the structure, temperature and mass of the disk through the thermal emission of the dust heated by the central star. Another goal was also to constrain the size distribution of the grains. The data were reduced and calibrated using the JWST pipeline. The analysis was based on a forward-modeling of the images using a multiparameter radiative transfer model coupled to an optical code for coronagraphy processing. The disk is clearly detected at both wavelengths. The slight asymmetry is geometrically consistent with the asymmetry observed in the near-IR, but it is inconsistent the brightness distribution. The observed structure is well reproduced with a model of a disk (or belt) with a critical radius 70 au, a mildly inward-increasing density (index 2) and a steeper decrease outward (index -6). This indication of a filled disk inside the critical radius is inconsistent with sculpting from an inner massive planet. The size distribution of the grains that cause the mid-IR emission is well constrained by the flux ratio at the two wavelengths : 0.45 10 mic and 0.65 10 mic for silicate and graphite grains, respectively. The minimum size is consistent with predictions of blowout through radiative pressure. We derive a mass of the dust that causes the mid-IR emission of 3.3 5.0 E3 Mearth. When the larger grains (up to 1 cm) that cause the millimeter emission are included, we extrapolate this mass to 0.10 0.16 Mearth. We point out to that this is fully consistent with ALMA observations of the disk in terms of dust mass and of its millimeter flux. We estimate the average dust temperature in the planetesimal belt to be 74 K, and a temperature range within the whole disk from 40 to 130 K.

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arXiv2025

HCN and C2H2 in the atmosphere of a T8.5+T9 brown dwarf binary

T-type brown dwarfs present an opportunity to explore atmospheres teeming with molecules such as H2O, CH4 and NH3, which exhibit a wealth of absorption features in the mid-infrared. With JWST, we can finally explore this chemistry in detail, including for the coldest brown dwarfs that were not yet discovered in the Spitzer era. This allows precise derivations of the molecular abundances, which in turn informs our understanding of vertical transport in these atmospheres and can provide clues about the formation of cold brown dwarfs and exoplanets. This study presents the first JWST/MRS mid-IR spectrum (R ~ 1500-3000) of a T-dwarf: the T8.5+T9 brown dwarf binary WISE J045853.90+643451.9. We fit the spectrum using a parameterized P-T profile and free molecular abundances (i.e., a retrieval analysis), treating the binary as unresolved. We find a good fit with a cloud-free atmosphere and identify H2O, CH4 and NH3 features. Moreover, we make the first detections of HCN and C2H2 (at 13.4$σ$ and 9.5$σ$ respectively) in any brown dwarf atmosphere. The detection of HCN suggests intense vertical mixing ($K_{zz}\sim10^{11}$cm$^2$s$^{-1}$), challenging previous literature derivations of $K_{zz}$ values for T-type brown dwarfs. Even more surprising is the C2H2 detection, which cannot be explained with existing atmospheric models for isolated objects. This result challenges model assumptions about vertical mixing, and/or our understanding of the C2H2 chemical network, or might hint towards a more complex atmospheric processes such as magnetic fields driving aurorae, or lightning driving ionization. These findings open a new frontier in studying carbon chemistry within brown dwarf atmospheres.

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arXiv2025

First unambiguous detection of ammonia in the atmosphere of a planetary mass companion with JWST/MIRI coronagraphs

The newly accessible mid-infrared (MIR) window offered by the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) for exoplanet imaging is expected to provide valuable information to characterize their atmospheres. In particular, coronagraphs on board the JWST Mid-InfraRed instrument (MIRI) are capable of imaging the coldest directly imaged giant planets at the wavelengths where they emit most of their flux. The MIRI coronagraphs have been specially designed to detect the NH3 absorption around 10.5 microns, which has been predicted by atmospheric models. We aim to assess the presence of NH3 while refining the atmospheric parameters of one of the coldest companions detected by directly imaging GJ 504 b. Its mass is still a matter of debate and depending on the host star age estimate, the companion could either be placed in the brown dwarf regime or in the young Jovian planet regime. We present an analysis of MIRI coronagraphic observations of the GJ 504 system. We took advantage of previous observations of reference stars to build a library of images and to perform a more efficient subtraction of the stellar diffraction pattern. We detected the presence of NH3 at 12.5 sigma in the atmosphere, in line with atmospheric model expectations for a planetary-mass object and observed in brown dwarfs within a similar temperature range. The best-fit model with Exo-REM provides updated values of its atmospheric parameters, yielding a temperature of Teff = 512 K and radius of R = 1.08 RJup. These observations demonstrate the capability of MIRI coronagraphs to detect NH3 and to provide the first MIR observations of one of the coldest directly imaged companions. Overall, NH3 is a key molecule for characterizing the atmospheres of cold planets, offering valuable insights into their surface gravity. These observations provide valuable information for spectroscopic observations planned with JWST.

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arXiv2025

MINDS. JWST-MIRI Observations of a Spatially Resolved Atomic Jet and Polychromatic Molecular Wind Toward SY Cha

The removal of angular momentum from protostellar systems drives accretion onto the central star and may drive the dispersal of the protoplanetary disk. Winds and jets can contribute to removing angular momentum from the disk, though the dominant process remain unclear. To date, observational studies of resolved disk winds have mostly targeted highly inclined disks. We report the detection of extended H2 and [Ne II] emission toward the young stellar object SY Cha with the JWST Mid-InfraRed Instrument Medium Resolution Spectrometer (MIRI-MRS). This is one of the first polychromatic detections of extended H2 toward a moderately inclined, i=51.1 degrees, Class II source. We measure the semi-opening angle of the H2 emission as well as build a rotation diagram to determine the H2 excitation temperature and abundance. We find a wide semi-opening angle, high temperature, and low column density for the H2 emission, all of which are characteristic of a disk wind. We derive a molecular wind mass loss rate of 3+-2e-9 Msun/yr, which is high compared to the previously derived stellar accretion rate of 6.6e-10 Msun/yr. This suggests either that the stellar accretion and the disk wind are driven by different mechanisms or that accretion onto the star is highly variable. These observations demonstrate MIRI-MRS's utility in expanding studies of resolved disk winds beyond edge-on sources.

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arXiv2025

MINDS. The influence of outer dust disc structure on the volatile delivery to the inner disc

ALMA has revealed that the millimetre dust structures of protoplanetary discs are extremely diverse. It has been proposed that the strength of H$_2$O emission in the inner disc particularly depends on the influx of icy pebbles from the outer disc, a process that would correlate with the outer dust disc radius, and that could be prevented by pressure bumps. This work aims to assess the influence of pressure bumps on the inner disc's molecular reservoirs. Using JWST's MIRI/MRS, we compared the observational emission properties of H$_2$O, HCN, C$_2$H$_2$, and CO$_2$ with the outer dust disc structure from ALMA observations, in eight discs with confirmed gaps in ALMA observations, and two discs with gaps of tens of astronomical units in width, around stars with $M_\star \geq 0.45M_{\odot}$. We used new visibility plane fits of the ALMA data to determine the outer dust disc radius and identify substructures in the discs. We find that the presence of a dust gap does not necessarily result in weak H$_2$O emission. Furthermore, the relative lack of colder H$_2$O-emission seems to go hand in hand with elevated emission from carbon-bearing species. The discs with cavities and extremely wide gaps appear to behave as a somewhat separate group, with stronger cold H$_2$O emission and weak warm H$_2$O emission. We conclude that fully blocking radial dust drift from the outer disc seems difficult to achieve. However, there does seem to be a dichotomy between discs that show a strong cold H$_2$O excess and ones that show strong emission from HCN and C$_2$H$_2$. Better constraints on the influence of the outer dust disc structure and inner disc composition require more information on substructure formation timescales and disc ages, along with the importance of trapping of volatiles like CO and CO$_2$ into more strongly bound ices like H$_2$O and chemical transformation of CO into less volatile species.

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arXiv2024

MINDS. JWST-MIRI reveals a peculiar CO$_2$-rich chemistry in the drift-dominated disk CX Tau

Radial drift of icy pebbles can have a large impact on the chemistry of the inner regions of protoplanetary disks. Compact dust disks ($\lesssim$50 au) are suggested to have a higher (cold) H$_2$O flux than more extended disks, likely due to efficient radial drift bringing H$_2$O-rich material to the inner disk, where it can be observed with JWST. We present JWST MIRI/MRS observations of the disk CX Tau taken as a part of the Mid-INfrared Disk Survey (MINDS) GTO program, a prime example of a drift-dominated disk. This compact disk seems peculiar: the source possesses a bright CO$_2$ feature instead of the bright H$_2$O expected based on its efficient radial drift. We aim to provide an explanation for this finding. We detect molecular emission from H$_2$O, $^{12}$CO$_2$, $^{13}$CO$_2$, C$_2$H$_2$, HCN, and OH in this disk, and even demonstrate a potential detection of CO$^{18}$O. Analysis of the $^{12}$CO$_2$ and $^{13}$CO$_2$ emission shows the former to be tracing a temperature of $\sim$450 K, whereas the $^{13}$CO$_2$ traces a significantly colder temperature ($\sim$200 K). H$_2$O is also securely detected both at shorter and longer wavelengths, tracing a similar temperature of $\sim$500-600 K as the CO$_2$ emission. We also find evidence for a colder, $\sim$200 K H$_2$O component at longer wavelengths, which is in line with this disk having strong radial drift. The cold $^{13}$CO$_2$ and H$_2$O emission indicate that radial drift of ices likely plays an important role in setting the chemistry of the inner disk of CX Tau. Potentially, the H$_2$O-rich gas has already advected onto the central star, which is now followed by an enhancement of comparatively CO$_2$-rich gas reaching the inner disk, explaining the enhancement of CO$_2$ emission in CX Tau. The comparatively weaker H$_2$O emission can be explained by the source's low accretion luminosity. (abridged)

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arXiv2024

Combined analysis of the 12.8 and 15 $μm$ JWST/MIRI eclipse observations of TRAPPIST-1 b

The first JWST/MIRI photometric observations of TRAPPIST-1 b allowed for the detection of the thermal emission of the planet at 15 $μm$, suggesting that the planet could be a bare rock with a zero albedo and no redistribution of heat. These observations at 15 $μm$ were acquired as part of GTO time that included a twin program at 12.8 $μm$ in order to have a measurement in and outside the CO$_2$ absorption band. Here we present five new occultations of TRAPPIST-1 b observed with MIRI in an additional photometric band at 12.8 $μm$. We perform a global fit of the 10 eclipses and derive a planet-to-star flux ratio and 1-$σ$ error of 452 $\pm$ 86 ppm and 775 $\pm$ 90 ppm at 12.8 $μm$ and 15 $μm$, respectively. We find that two main scenarios emerge. An airless planet model with an unweathered (fresh) ultramafic surface, that could be indicative of relatively recent geological processes fits well the data. Alternatively, a thick, pure-CO2 atmosphere with photochemical hazes that create a temperature inversion and result in the CO2 feature being seen in emission also works, although with some caveats. Our results highlight the challenges in accurately determining a planet's atmospheric or surface nature solely from broadband filter measurements of its emission, but also point towards two very interesting scenarios that will be further investigated with the forthcoming phase curve of TRAPPIST-1 b.

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arXiv2024

Unveiling the HD 95086 system at mid-infrared wavelengths with JWST/MIRI

Mid-infrared imaging of exoplanets and disks is now possible with the coronagraphs of the MIRI on the JWST. This wavelength range unveils new features of young directly imaged systems and allows us to obtain new constraints for characterizing the atmosphere of young giant exoplanets and associated disks. These observations aim to characterize the atmosphere of the planet HD 95086 b by adding mid-infrared information so that the various hypotheses about its atmospheric parameters values can be unraveled. Improved images of circumstellar disks are provided. We present the MIRI coronagraphic imaging of the system HD 95086 obtained with the F1065C, F1140, and F2300C filters at central wavelengths of 10.575, 11.3, and 23 microns, respectively. We explored the method for subtracting the stellar diffraction pattern in the particular case when bright dust emitting at short separation is present. Furthermore, we compared different methods for extracting the photometry of the planet. Using the atmospheric models Exo-REM and ATMO, we measured the atmospheric parameters of HD 95086 b. The planet HD 95086 b and the contribution from the inner disk are detected at the two shortest MIRI wavelengths F1065C and F1140C. The outer colder belt is imaged at 23 microns. The mid-infrared photometry provides better constraints on the atmospheric parameters. We evaluate a temperature of 800-1050 K, consistent with one previous hypothesis that only used NIR data. The radius measurement of 1.0-1.14 RJup is better aligned with evolutionary models, but still smaller than predicted. These observations allow us to refute the hypothesis of a warm circumplanetary disk. HD 95086 is one of the first exoplanetary systems to be revealed at mid-infrared wavelengths. This highlights the interests and challenges of observations at these wavelengths.

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arXiv2024

Large Interferometer For Exoplanets (LIFE). XIV. Finding terrestrial protoplanets in the galactic neighborhood

The increased brightness temperature of young rocky protoplanets during their magma ocean epoch makes them potentially amenable to atmospheric characterization to distances from the solar system far greater than thermally equilibrated terrestrial exoplanets, offering observational opportunities for unique insights into the origin of secondary atmospheres and the near surface conditions of prebiotic environments. The Large Interferometer For Exoplanets (LIFE) mission will employ a space-based mid-infrared nulling interferometer to directly measure the thermal emission of terrestrial exoplanets. Here, we seek to assess the capabilities of various instrumental design choices of the LIFE mission concept for the detection of cooling protoplanets with transient high-temperature magma ocean atmospheres, in young stellar associations in particular. Using the LIFE mission instrument simulator (LIFEsim) we assess how specific instrumental parameters and design choices, such as wavelength coverage, aperture diameter, and photon throughput, facilitate or disadvantage the detection of protoplanets. We focus on the observational sensitivities of distance to the observed planetary system, protoplanet brightness temperature using a blackbody assumption, and orbital distance of the potential protoplanets around both G- and M-dwarf stars. Our simulations suggest that LIFE will be able to detect (S/N $\geq$ 7) hot protoplanets in young stellar associations up to distances of $\approx$100 pc from the solar system for reasonable integration times (up to $\sim$hours). Detection of an Earth-sized protoplanet orbiting a solar-sized host star at 1 AU requires less than 30 minutes of integration time. M-dwarfs generally need shorter integration times. The contribution from wavelength regions $<$6 $μ$m is important for decreasing the detection threshold and discriminating emission temperatures.

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