arXiv subjects

Akio K. Inoue

Publications and source records attributed to Akio K. Inoue.

At least 163 records · Page 9Linked to original sources

arXiv2013

The Effect of the Remnant Mass in Estimating Stellar Mass of Galaxies

The definition of the galactic stellar mass estimated from the spectral energy distribution is ambiguous in the literature; whether the stellar mass includes the mass of the stellar remnants, i.e. white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes, is not well described. The remnant mass fraction in the total (living+remnant) stellar mass of a simple stellar population monotonically increases with the age of the population, and the initial mass function and metallicity affect the increasing rate. Since galaxies are composed of a number of stellar populations, the remnant mass fraction may depend on the total stellar mass of galaxies in a complex way. As a result, the shape of the stellar mass function of galaxies may change, depending on the definition of the stellar mass. In order to explore this issue, we ran a cosmological hydrodynamical simulation, and then, we have found that the remnant mass fraction indeed correlates with the total stellar mass of galaxies. However, this correlation is weak and the remnant fraction can be regarded as a constant which depends only on the redshift. Therefore, the shape of the stellar mass function is almost unchanged, but it simply shifts horizontally if the remnant mass includes or not. The shift is larger at lower redshift and it reaches 0.2-dex at z=0 for a Chabrier IMF. Since this causes a systematic difference, we should take care of the definition of the `stellar' mass, when comparing one's result with others.

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arXiv2013

Revisiting the Cosmic Star Formation History: Caution on the Uncertainties in Dust Correction and Star Formation Rate Conversion

The cosmic star formation rate density (CSFRD) has been observationally investigated out to redshift z~10. However, most of theoretical models for galaxy formation underpredict the CSFRD at z>1. Since the theoretical models reproduce the observed luminosity functions (LFs), luminosity densities (LDs), and stellar mass density at each redshift, this inconsistency does not simply imply that theoretical models should incorporate some missing unknown physical processes in galaxy formation. Here, we examine the cause of this inconsistency in UV wavelengths by using a mock catalog of galaxies generated by a semi-analytic model of galaxy formation. We find that this inconsistency is due to two observational uncertainties: dust obscuration correction and conversion from UV luminosity to star formation rate (SFR). The methods for correction of obscuration and SFR conversion used in observational studies result in the overestimation of CSFRD by ~ 0.1-0.3 dex and ~ 0.1-0.2 dex, respectively, compared to the results obtained directly from our mock catalog. We present new empirical calibrations for dust attenuation and conversion from observed UV LFs and LDs into CSFRD.

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arXiv2012

A possible signature of primordial stellar populations in $z=3$ Lyman $α$ emitters

Observations with Subaru telescope have detected surprisingly strong Lyman continuum (LyC; $\sim900$ Å in the rest-frame) from some Lyman $α$ emitters (LAEs) at $z=3.1$. We have examined the stellar population which simultaneously accounts for the strength of the LyC and the spectral slope of non-ionizing ultraviolet of the LAEs. As a result, we have found that stellar populations with metallicity $Z\geq1/50 Z_\odot$ can explain the observed LyC strength only with a very top-heavy initial mass function (IMF; $< m > \sim 50 M_\odot$). However, the critical metallicity for such an IMF is expected to be much lower. A very young ($\sim1$ Myr) and massive ($\sim100$ $M_\odot$) extremely metal-poor ($Z\leq5\times10^{-4}Z_\odot$) or metal-free (so-called Population III) stellar population can also reproduce the observed LyC strength if the mass fraction of such 'primordial' stellar population is $\sim1$% in total stellar mass of the LAEs.

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arXiv2012

Reexamination of the Infrared Excess-Ultraviolet Slope Relation of Local Galaxies

The relation between the ratio of infrared (IR) and ultraviolet (UV) flux densities (the infrared excess: IRX) and the slope of the UV spectrum (β) of galaxies plays a fundamental role in the evaluation of the dust attenuation of star forming galaxies especially at high redshifts. Many authors, however, pointed out that there is a significant dispersion and/or deviation from the originally proposed IRX-βrelation depending on sample selection. We reexamined the IRX-βrelation by measuring the far- and near-UV flux densities of the original sample galaxies with GALEX and AKARI imaging data, and constructed a revised formula. We found that the newly obtained IRX values were lower than the original relation because of the significant underestimation of the UV flux densities of the galaxies, caused by the small aperture of IUE, Further, since the original relation was based on IRAS data which covered a wavelength range of λ= 42--122\mum, using the data from AKARI which has wider wavelength coverage toward longer wavelengths, we obtained an appropriate IRX-βrelation with total dust emission (TIR): \log(L_{\rm TIR}/L_{\rm FUV}) = \log [10^{0.4(3.06+1.58β)}-1] +0.22. This new relation is consistent with most of the preceding results for samples selected at optical and UV, though there is a significant scatter around it. We also found that even the quiescent class of IR galaxies follows this new relation, though luminous and ultraluminous IR galaxies distribute completely differently as well known before.

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arXiv2012

Dust formation history of galaxies: a critical role of metallicity for the dust mass growth by accreting materials in the interstellar medium

This paper investigate what is the main driver of the dust mass growth in the interstellar medium (ISM) by using a chemical evolution model of galaxy with metals (elements heavier than helium) in dust phase in addition to the total amount of metals. We consider asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars, type II supernovae (SNe II) and the dust mass growth in the ISM as the sources of dust, and SN shocks as the destruction mechanism of dust. Further, to describe the dust evolution precisely, our model takes into account the age and metallicity (the ratio of metal mass to ISM mass) dependence of the sources of dust. We particularly focused on the dust mass growth, and found that the dust mass growth in the ISM is regulated by the metallicity. To quantify this aspect, we introduce a "critical metallicity", which is a metallicity at which the contribution of stars (AGB stars and SNe II) equals that of the dust mass growth in the ISM. If the star formation timescale is shorter, the value of the critical metallicity is higher, but the galactic age at which the metallicity reaches the critical metallicity is shorter. From observations, it was expected that the dust mass growth was the dominant source of dust in the Milky Way and dusty QSOs at high redshifts. By introducing the critical metallicity, it is clearly shown that the dust mass growth is the main source of dust in such galaxies with various star formation timescales and ages. The dust mass growth in the ISM is regulated by metallicity, and we stress that the critical metallicity works as an indicator to judge whether the grain growth in the ISM is dominant source of dust in a galaxy, especially because of the strong and nonlinear dependence on the metallicity.

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arXiv2012

The origin of dust in galaxies revisited: the mechanism determining dust content

The origin of cosmic dust is a fundamental issue in planetary science. This paper revisits the origin of dust in galaxies, in particular, in the Milky Way, by using a chemical evolution model of a galaxy composed of stars, interstellar medium, metals (elements heavier than helium), and dust. We start from a review of time-evolutionary equations of the four components, and then, we present simple recipes for the stellar remnant mass and yields of metal and dust based on models of stellar nucleosynthesis and dust formation. After calibrating some model parameters with the data from the solar neighborhood, we have confirmed a shortage of the stellar dust production rate relative to the dust destruction rate by supernovae if the destruction efficiency suggested by theoretical works is correct. If the dust mass growth by material accretion in molecular clouds is active, the observed dust amount in the solar neighborhood is reproduced. We present a clear analytic explanation of the mechanism for determining dust content in galaxies after the activation of accretion growth: a balance between accretion growth and supernova destruction. Thus, the dust content is independent of the uncertainty of the stellar dust yield after the growth activation. The timing of the activation is determined by a critical metal mass fraction which depends on the growth and destruction efficiencies. The solar system formation seems to have occurred well after the activation and plenty of dust would have existed in the proto-solar nebula.

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arXiv2012

Effect of Photodesorption on Snow Line at the Surface of Optically Thick Circumstellar Disks around Herbig Ae/Be Stars

We investigate the effect of photodesorption on the snow line position at the surface of a protoplanetary disk around a Herbig Ae/Be star, motivated by the detection of water ice particles at the surface of the disk around HD142527 by Honda et al. For this aim, we obtain the density and temperature structure in the disk with a 1+1D radiative transfer and determine the distribution of water ice particles in the disk by the balance between condensation, sublimation, and photodesorption. We find that photodesorption induced by the far-ultraviolet radiation from the central star depresses the ice-condensation front toward the mid-plane and pushes the surface snow line outward significantly when the stellar effective temperature exceeds a certain critical value. This critical effective temperature depends on the stellar luminosity and mass, the water abundance in the disk, and the yield of photodesorption. We present an approximate analytic formula for the critical temperature. We separate Herbig Ae/Be stars into two groups on the HR diagram according to the critical temperature; one is the disks where photodesorption is effective and from which we may not find ice particles at the surface, and the other is the disks where photodesorption is not effective. We estimate the snow line position at the surface of the disk around HD142527 to be 100--300 AU which is consistent with the water ice detection at >140 AU in the disk. All results depend on the dust grain size by a complex way and this point requires more work in future.

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arXiv2011

Rest-frame ultraviolet-to-optical spectral characteristics of extremely metal-poor and metal-free galaxies

Finding the first generation of galaxies in the early Universe is the greatest step forward for understanding galaxy formation and evolution. For strategic survey of such galaxies and interpretation of the obtained data, this paper presents an ultraviolet-to-optical spectral model of galaxies with a great care of the nebular emission. In particular, we present a machine-readable table of intensities of 119 nebular emission lines from Ly$α$ to the rest-frame 1 $μ$m as a function of metallicity from zero to the Solar one. Based on the spectral model, we present criteria of equivalent widths of Ly$α$, He {\sc ii} $\lambda1640$, H$α$, H$β$, [O {\sc iii}] $\lambda5007$ to select extremely metal-poor and metal-free galaxies although these criteria have uncertainty caused by the Lyman continuum escape fraction and the star formation duration. We also present criteria of broad-band colours which will be useful to select candidates for spectroscopic follow-up from drop-out galaxies. We propose the line intensity ratio of [O {\sc iii}] $\lambda5007$ to H$β$ $<0.1$ as the most robust criterion for $<1/1000$ of the Solar metallicity. This ratio of a galaxy with a few $M_\odot$ yr$^{-1}$ at $z\sim8$ is detectable by spectroscopy with the James Webb Space Telescope within a reasonable exposure time.

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arXiv2010

Lyman `bump' galaxies - II. A possible signature of massive extremely metal-poor or metal-free stars in z=3.1 Ly-alpha emitters

(Abridged) Deep NB359 imaging with Subaru by Iwata et al. have detected surprisingly strong Lyman continuum (LyC; ~900A in the rest-frame) from some LAEs at z=3.1. However, the redshifts might be misidentified due to a narrow wavelength coverage in previous spectroscopy. We here present new deep spectroscopy covering the observed 4,000-7,000A with VLT/VIMOS and Subaru/FOCAS of 8 LAEs detected in NB359. All the 8 objects have only one detectable emission line around 4,970A which is most likely to be Ly-A at z=3.1, and thus, the objects are certainly LAEs at the redshift. However, 5 of them show a ~0.''8 spatial offset between the Ly-A emission and the source detected in NB359. No indications of the redshifts of the NB359 sources are found although it is statistically difficult that all the 5 LAEs have a foreground object accounting for the NB359 flux. The rest 3 LAEs show no significant offset from the NB359 position. Therefore, they are truly LyC emitting LAEs at z=3.1. We also examine the stellar population which simultaneously accounts for the strength of the LyC and the spectral slope of non-ionizing ultraviolet of the LAEs. We consider the latest statistics of Lyman limit systems to estimate the LyC optical depth in the IGM and an additional contribution of the bound-free LyC from photo-ionized nebulae to the LyC emissivity. As a result, we find that stellar populations with metallicity Z>=1/50Z_sun can explain the observed LyC strength only with a very top-heavy initial mass function (IMF; ~50 M_sun). However, the critical metallicity for such an IMF is expected to be much lower. A very young (~1 Myr) and massive (~100 M_sun) extremely metal-poor (Z<=5e-4Z_sun) or metal-free (so-called Population III) stellar population can reproduce the observed LyC strength. The required mass fraction of such `primordial' stellar population is ~1--10% in total stellar mass of the LAEs.

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arXiv2009

Lyman "bump" galaxies - I. Spectral energy distribution of galaxies with an escape of nebular Lyman continuum

It is essential to know galactic emissivity and spectrum of Lyman continuum (LyC) in order to understand the cosmic reionization. Here we consider an escape of nebular LyC from galaxies and examine the consequent spectral energy distribution. It is usually assumed that hydrogen nebular LyC mostly produced by bound-free transitions is consumed within photo-ionized nebulae (so-called "on-the-spot" approximation). However, an escape of the continuum should be taken into account if stellar LyC escapes from galaxies through "matter-bounded" nebulae. We show that the escaping hydrogen bound-free LyC makes a strong bump just below the Lyman limit. Such a galaxy would be observed as a Lyman "bump" galaxy. This bump results from the radiation energy re-distribution of stellar LyC by nebulae. The strength of the bump depends on electron temperature in nebulae, escape fraction of stellar and nebular LyC, hardness of stellar LyC (i.e. metallicity, initial mass function, age and star formation history), and IGM attenuation. We can use the bump to find very young ($\sim1$ Myr), massive ($\sim100$ $M_\odot$), and extremely metal-poor (or metal-free) stellar populations at $z<4$. Because of the bump, 900 Å-to-1500 Åluminosity density ratio (per Hz) becomes maximum (2--3 times larger than the stellar intrinsic ratio) when about 40% of the stellar LyC is absorbed by nebulae. The total number of escaping LyC photons increases due to the escape of nebular LyC but does not exceed the stellar intrinsic one. The radiation energy re-distribution by nebulae reduces the mean energy of escaping LyC only by $\approx10$% relative to that of stellar LyC. Therefore, the effect of the escape of nebular LyC on the reionization process may be small.

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arXiv2008

Effects of scattering and dust grain size on the temperature structure of protoplanetary discs: A three-layer approach

The temperature in the optically thick interior of protoplanetary discs is essential for the interpretation of millimeter observations of the discs, for the vertical structure of the discs, for models of the disc evolution and the planet formation, and for the chemistry in the discs. Since large icy grains have a large albedo even in the infrared, the effect of scattering of the diffuse radiation in the discs on the interior temperature should be examined. We have performed a series of numerical radiation transfer simulations including isotropic scattering by grains with various typical sizes for the diffuse radiation as well as for the incident stellar radiation. We also have developed an analytic model including isotropic scattering to understand the physics concealed in the numerical results. With the analytic model, we have shown that the standard two-layer approach is valid only for grey opacity (i.e. grain size $\ga10$ \micron) even without scattering. A three-layer interpretation is required for grain size $\la10$ \micron. When the grain size is 0.1--10 \micron, the numerical simulations show that isotropic scattering reduces the temperature of the disc interior. This reduction is nicely explained by the analytic three-layer model as a result of the energy loss by scatterings of the incident stellar radiation and of the warm diffuse radiation in the disc atmosphere. For grain size $\ga10$ \micron (i.e. grey scattering), the numerical simulations show that isotropic scattering does not affect the interior temperature. This is nicely explained by the analytic two-layer model; the energy loss by scattering in the disc atmosphere is exactly offset by the "green-house effect" due to scattering of the cold diffuse radiation in the interior.

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arXiv2008

Intergalactic dust and its photoelectric heating

We have examined the dust photoelectric heating in the intergalactic medium (IGM). The heating rate in a typical radiation field of the IGM is represented by $Γ_{\rm pe} = 1.2\times10^{-34}$ erg s$^{-1}$ cm$^{-3}$ $({\cal D}/10^{-4})(n_{\rm H}/10^{-5} {\rm cm^{-3}})^{4/3} (J_{\rm L}/10^{-21} {\rm erg s^{-1} cm^{-2} Hz^{-1} sr^{-1}})^{2/3} (T/10^4 {\rm K})^{-1/6}$, where ${\cal D}$ is the dust-to-gas mass ratio, $n_{\rm H}$ is the hydrogen number density, $J_{\rm L}$ is the mean intensity at the hydrogen Lyman limit of the background radiation, and $T$ is the gas temperature, if we assume the new X-ray photoelectric yield model by Weingartner et al. (2006) and the dust size distribution in the Milky Way by Mathis, Rumpl, & Nordsieck (1977). This heating rate dominates the HI and HeII photoionization heating rates when the hydrogen number density is less than $\sim10^{-6}$ cm$^{-3}$ if ${\cal D}=10^{-4}$ which is 1% of that in the Milky Way, although the heating rate is a factor of 2--4 smaller than that with the old yield model by Weingartner & Draine (2001). The grain size distribution is very important. If only large ($\ge0.1$ $μ$m) grains exist in the IGM, the heating rate is reduced by a factor of $\simeq5$. Since the dust heating is more efficient in a lower density medium relative to the photoionization heating, it may cause an inverted temperature--density relation in the low density IGM suggested by Bolton et al. (2008). Finally, we have found that the dust heating is not very important in the mean IGM before the cosmic reionization.

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arXiv2008

A Monte Carlo simulation of the intergalactic absorption and the detectability of the Lyman continuum from distant galaxies

We have made a Monte Carlo simulation of the intergalactic absorption in order to model the Lyman continuum absorption, which is required to estimate the escape fraction of the Lyman continuum from distant galaxies. To input into the simulation, we derive an empirical distribution function of the intergalactic absorbers which reproduces recent observational statistics of the Lyman $α$ forest, Lyman limit systems (LLSs), and damped Lyman $α$ systems (DLAs) simultaneously. In particular, we assume a common functional form of the number evolution along the redshift for all types of absorbers. The Lyman series transmissions in our simulation reproduce the observed redshift evolution of the transmissions excellently, and the Lyman continuum transmission also agrees with an observed estimation which is still quite rare in the literature. The probability distribution of the Lyman $α$ opacity in our simulation is log-normal with a tail towards a large opacity. This tail is produced by DLAs. The probability distribution of the Lyman continuum opacity in our simulation also show a broad tail towards a large opacity. This tail is produced by LLSs. Because of the rarity of LLSs, we have a chance to have a clean line of sight in the Lyman continuum even for $z\sim4$ with a probability of about 20%. Our simulation expects a good correlation between the Lyman continuum opacity and the Lyman $α$ opacity, which may be useful to estimate the former from the latter for an individual line of sight.

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arXiv2008

Observational Possibility of the "Snow Line" on the Surface of Circumstellar Disks with the Scattered Light

We discuss how we obtain the spatial distribution of ice on the surface of the circumstellar disk around young stars. Ice in the disks plays a very important role in various issues, for instance, on the disk structure, on the planet formation, on the isotopic anomaly in meteorites, and on the origin of the sea on the Earth. Therefore, the spatially resolved observation of the condensation/sublimation front of ice, so-called ``snow line'' is strongly required. Here, we propose a new method for obtaining the spatially resolved ``snow line'' on the circumstellar disks by observing 3 \micron H$_2$O ice feature in the scattered light. Based on radiative transfer considerations, we show that the feature is clearly imprinted in the spectrum of the scattered light from both optically thick and thin circumstellar disks. We also show that the scattered light and the H$_2$O ice feature from protoplanetary disks are detectable and spatially resolvable with the current instruments through a $H_2O$ narrowband filter around 3 \micron. Finally, we present a diagnostics of disk dust properties on the $K-H_2O$ and $K-L'$ two color diagram.

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arXiv2006

Escape fraction of ionizing photons from galaxies at z=0--6

The escape fraction of ionizing photons from galaxies is a crucial quantity controlling the cosmic ionizing background radiation and the reionization. Various estimates of this parameter can be obtained in the redshift range, z=0--6, either from direct observations or from the observed ionizing background intensities. We compare them homogeneously in terms of the observed flux density ratio of ionizing ($\sim900$ Årest-frame) to non-ionizing ultraviolet ($\sim1500$ Årest-frame) corrected for the intergalactic absorption. The escape fraction is found to increase by an order of magnitude, from a value less than 0.01 at $z\la1$ to about 0.1 at $z\ga4$.

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arXiv2006

Competition between dust scattering albedo and 2175 A bump for ultraviolet colours of nearby disc galaxies

Observed ultraviolet (UV) colours of nearby disc galaxies show a reddening relative to their expected intrinsic colours. Since the 2175 Åbump found in the Milky Way's dust extinction law blues the UV colours, it might suggest that dust in nearby disc galaxies does not have the bump and that the Milky Way is exceptional. However, this conclusion can be modified by the effect of scatterings. If the scattering albedo decreases towards shorter wavelengths, observable UV colours redden. An extensive comparison between observed UV colours and those expected from radiative transfer simulations shows two types of dust suitable for nearby disc galaxies: (1) dust with a bump and a smaller albedo for a shorter wavelength (except for the bump range), and (2) dust without any bump but with an almost constant albedo. If very small carbonaceous grains responsible for the common unidentified infrared emission band are also the bump carrier, the former dust is favorable.

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arXiv2006

Effects of dust scattering albedo and 2175 A bump on ultraviolet colours of normal disc galaxies

We discuss dust properties in the interstellar medium (ISM) of nearby normal galaxies, by comparing observations in the ultraviolet (UV) with simulations by a radiative transfer model. The observed UV colours of nearby galaxies show a reddening relative to their expected intrinsic colours. Some authors argued that the Milky Way dust cannot reproduce the reddening because of the prominent 2175 Åabsorption bump. Other authors proposed a reduction mechanism of the bump strength in an {\it attenuation law} derived from the ratio of the observed intensity to the intrinsic one through an age-selective attenuation (i.e., young stars are more attenuated selectively). We newly find that the wavelength dependence of the scattering albedo also has a strong effect on the UV colour; an albedo decreasing toward shorter wavelengths (except for the absorption bump range) produces a significant UV reddening. After comparing the observed UV colours of nearby normal galaxies with those expected from radiative transfer simulations assumed several dust models, we find two sorts of dust suitable for these galaxies: (1) dust with a bump and a smaller albedo for a shorter wavelength (except for the bump range), and (2) dust without any bump but with an almost constant albedo. If very small carbonaceous grains responsible for the common unidentified infrared emission band are also the bump carrier, the former dust is favorable. Finally, we derive mean attenuation laws of various dust models as a function of the UV attenuation, and derive some relations between the UV attenuation and observable/theoretical quantities.

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arXiv2005

Attenuation law of normal disc galaxies with clumpy distributions of stars and dust

We investigate the attenuation law seen through an interstellar medium (ISM) with clumpy spatial distributions of stars and dust. The clumpiness of the dust distribution is introduced by a multi-phase ISM model. We solve a set of radiative transfer equations with multiple anisotropic scatterings through the clumpy ISM in a 1-D plane-parallel geometry by using the mega-grain approximation, in which dusty clumps are regarded as very large particles (i.e. mega-grains). The clumpiness of the stellar distribution is introduced by the youngest stars embedded in the clumps. We assume a smooth spatial distribution for older stars. The youngest stars are surrounded by denser dusty gas and suffer stronger attenuation than diffuse older stars (i.e. age-selective attenuation). The apparent attenuation law is a composite of the attenuation laws for the clumpy younger stars and for the diffuse older stars with a luminosity weight. In general, the stellar population dominating the luminosity changes from older stars to younger stars as the wavelength decreases. This makes the attenuation law steep; the composite attenuation rapidly increases from small attenuation for older stars at a long wavelength to large attenuation for younger stars at a short wavelength. The resultant attenuation law of normal disc galaxies is expected to be much steeper than that of starburst galaxies observed by Calzetti et al. Finally, the Calzetti's attenuation law is regarded as a special case with a large density in our framework.

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