arXiv subjects

Alessandra Mastrobuono-Battisti

Publications and source records attributed to Alessandra Mastrobuono-Battisti.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

arXiv2026

Tracing M22's origins: Spatial and chemical constraints on its formation history

Globular clusters (GCs) are well known to host stellar populations characterized by light-element variations. A subset of Galactic GCs, beyond such 'canonical' populations, contains an additional group enriched in iron, s-process elements, and total C+N+O abundance (i.e., the anomalous stars). We combine multi-facility photometry with APOGEE spectroscopy to investigate the spatial distribution, chemical properties, and formation history of the stellar populations in M22, with particular focus on its anomalous component. We trace the canonical and anomalous populations, together with their subpopulations, from the cluster center out to eight half-mass radii. The anomalous population becomes increasingly dominant in the outermost regions, whereas no significant radial gradients are detected among its subpopulations. Our chemical analysis reveals light-element anticorrelations within both the canonical and anomalous components, although the latter are shifted toward higher C, N, and Al abundances. For the first time, we show that the Fe, s-process, and C+N+O enhancements among anomalous stars are not uniform but correlate with their light-element composition: the most chemically extreme anomalous stars are also the most Fe-, Ce-rich, and C+N+O-poor. We identify a distinct red overdensity on the horizontal branch, likely populated by the most He-poor stars, and tentatively associate the extreme horizontal branch with the most chemically enriched anomalous population. These observations are difficult to reconcile with M22 being a merger between two GCs. Instead, they qualitatively favor a self-enrichment scenario regulated by dilution, similar to that recently proposed for $ω$Centauri, with their close chemical correspondence suggesting that they experienced analogous formation histories.

astro-ph.GA↗

arXiv2026

When bars and spirals conspire: recurrent build-up of the nuclear regions of disc galaxies

The assembly history of the central regions of disc galaxies is regulated by dynamical processes that trigger gas infall events, leading to active star formation in nuclear stellar discs (NSD) and in nuclear stellar clusters (NSC). In the Milky Way, recent studies of its nuclear regions have revealed a complex star formation history (SFH), with an initial burst associated to the formation of the Galactic bar, followed by a non-constant star formation rate. In this work, we aim to study the formation and evolution of nuclear structures and their link with the formation of large-scale structures. Our goal is to investigate the effects of the bar and spiral arms on the gas dynamics and, as a result on the SFH of NSDs and NSCs. We run a simulation of an isolated Milky Way-like galaxy with the SWIFT N-Body+hydro simulation code, including star formation and stellar feedback from SNIa & SNII. We start from a live DM halo and a pre-existing stellar & gaseous disc with 20% gas fraction, which form a bar, a boxy/peanut bulge, spiral arms and nuclear structures. We study the SFH of these regions and how they relate to variations in the bar length, strength and pattern speed. We investigate the role of spiral arms and their interaction with the bar. We find that the SFH of the nuclear regions display a main burst at bar formation time, due to bar-driven gas inflows. After bar formation, we find secondary periodic formation bursts, that do not appear in the disc SFH. These bursts occur when the spiral arms and the bar, rotating at different pattern speeds, reconnect, triggering secondary gas inflow events. The interaction of spiral arms and the galactic bar can enhance non-axisymmetric features in the disc, triggering bar-driven gas infall even after the bar has formed. These bar-spiral reconnection events are imprinted into the SFH of the NSCs and NSDs as episodic star formation bursts.

astro-ph.GA↗

arXiv2026

Self-consistent modelling of the Milky Way's Nuclear Stellar Disc

The Nuclear Stellar Disc (NSD) is a flattened high-density stellar structure that dominates the gravitational field of the Milky Way at Galactocentric radius $30\lesssim R\lesssim 300$ pc. We construct axisymmetric self-consistent equilibrium dynamical models of the NSD in which the distribution function is an analytic function of the action variables. We fit the models to the normalised kinematic distributions (line-of-sight velocities + VIRAC2 proper motions) of stars in the NSD survey of Fritz et al., taking the foreground contamination due to the Galactic Bar explicitly into account using an $N$-body model. The posterior marginalised probability distributions give a total mass of $M_{\rm NSD} = 10.5^{+1.1}_{-1.0} \times10^8 \,{\rm M_\odot}$, roughly exponential radial and vertical scale-lengths of $R_{\rm disc} = 88.6^{+9.2}_{-6.9}$ pc and $H_{\rm disc}=28.4^{+5.5}_{-5.5}$ pc respectively, and a velocity dispersion $σ\simeq 70$ km/s that decreases with radius. We find that the assumption that the NSD is axisymmetric provides a good representation of the data. We quantify contamination from the Galactic Bar in the sample, which is substantial in most observed fields. Our models provide the full 6D (position+velocity) distribution function of the NSD, which can be used to generate predictions for future surveys. We make the models publicly available as part of the software package AGAMA.

astro-ph.GA↗

arXiv2025

The JWST Galactic Center Survey -- A White Paper

The inner hundred parsecs of the Milky Way hosts the nearest supermassive black hole, largest reservoir of dense gas, greatest stellar density, hundreds of massive main and post main sequence stars, and the highest volume density of supernovae in the Galaxy. As the nearest environment in which it is possible to simultaneously observe many of the extreme processes shaping the Universe, it is one of the most well-studied regions in astrophysics. Due to its proximity, we can study the center of our Galaxy on scales down to a few hundred AU, a hundred times better than in similar Local Group galaxies and thousands of times better than in the nearest active galaxies. The Galactic Center (GC) is therefore of outstanding astrophysical interest. However, in spite of intense observational work over the past decades, there are still fundamental things unknown about the GC. JWST has the unique capability to provide us with the necessary, game-changing data. In this White Paper, we advocate for a JWST NIRCam survey that aims at solving central questions, that we have identified as a community: i) the 3D structure and kinematics of gas and stars; ii) ancient star formation and its relation with the overall history of the Milky Way, as well as recent star formation and its implications for the overall energetics of our galaxy's nucleus; and iii) the (non-)universality of star formation and the stellar initial mass function. We advocate for a large-area, multi-epoch, multi-wavelength NIRCam survey of the inner 100\,pc of the Galaxy in the form of a Treasury GO JWST Large Program that is open to the community. We describe how this survey will derive the physical and kinematic properties of ~10,000,000 stars, how this will solve the key unknowns and provide a valuable resource for the community with long-lasting legacy value.

astro-ph.GA↗

arXiv2025

Gaps in stellar streams as a result of globular cluster fly-bys

Thin stellar streams, such as those resulting from the tidal disruption of globular clusters, have long been known and used as probes of the gravitational potential of our Galaxy, both its visible and dark contents. In particular, the presence of under-density regions, or gaps, along these streams is commonly interpreted as being due to the close passage of dark matter sub-halos. In this work, we investigate the perturbations induced on streams by the passage of dense stellar systems, such as globular clusters themselves, to test the possibility that they may cause the formation of gaps as well. In particular, we focus on the study of the stream of Palomar 5, a well-known globular cluster in the Galactic halo, which has particularly long tidal tails. For this purpose, we used a particle-test code to simulate Palomar 5's tidal tails when subjected to the Galaxy's gravitational field plus its whole system of globular clusters. Our study shows that the tails of Palomar 5 can be strongly perturbed by the close passage of other clusters, in particular of NGC 2808, NGC 7078, NGC 104, and that these perturbations induce the formation of gaps in the tails. These results show that globular clusters are capable of inducing gaps in streams--as other baryonic components such as giant molecular clouds and the galactic bar have been shown to do in other works. Therefore, when searching to construct the distribution function of dark matter sub halos within the Milky Way, the gap contribution from globular clusters must be included.

astro-ph.GA↗

arXiv2025

Internal Dynamics of Multiple Populations in 28 Galactic Globular Clusters: A Wide-Field study with Gaia and the Hubble Space Telescope

We present a detailed analysis of the internal dynamics of multiple stellar populations (MPs) in 28 Galactic Globular Clusters (GCs) across a wide field of view, extending from the innermost regions to the clusters' outskirts. Using astro-photometric catalogs from ground-based observations, Gaia, and the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), we identify first- (1P) and second-population (2P) stars, and study the internal dynamics of MPs using high-precision Gaia DR3 and HST proper motions. Our results reveal that while the 1P transitions from isotropy to slight tangential anisotropy toward the outer regions, 2P stars become increasingly radially anisotropic beyond the half-light radius. We also explore the connection between the dynamics of MPs and the clusters' structural and dynamical properties, finding statistically significant differences in the anisotropy profiles of dynamically young and non-relaxed clusters, particularly beyond the 1-2 half-light radii. In these regions, 1P stars transition from isotropic to slightly tangentially anisotropic motion, while 2P stars become more radially anisotropic. In contrast, dynamically older clusters, with mixed MPs, exhibit weaker relative differences. Furthermore, clusters with orbits closer to the Galactic center exhibit larger dynamical differences between 1P and 2P stars than those with larger peri-Galactic radii. These findings are consistent with a scenario where 2P stars form in a more centrally concentrated environment, where the interaction with the Milky Way tidal field plays a crucial role in the dynamical evolution of MPs, especially of 1P.

astro-ph.GA↗

arXiv2024

Abundance ties: Nephele and the globular cluster population accreted with $ω$ Cen. Based on APOGEE DR17 and Gaia EDR3

The peculiar Galactic globular cluster $ω$ Centauri (NGC 5139) has drawn attention for its unique features - such as a high stellar mass and a broad distribution of chemical elements - that have led to the hypothesis that it might be the nuclear remnant of an ancient dwarf galaxy accreted by the Milky Way (MW), potentially bringing along its own globular cluster (GC) system. In this work, we adopt an innovative approach by examining the individual chemical abundances of Galactic GCs. Applying Gaussian Mixture Models to globular cluster stars, whose membership is based on Gaia EDR3, and whose chemical abundances are provided by APOGEE DR17, we depart from traditional kinematic-based procedures and search for GCs that are chemically compatible with $ω$ Cen in a 8-dimensional space defined by [Fe/H], [Mg/Fe], [Si/Fe], [Ca/Fe], [C/Fe], [Al/Fe], [K/Fe], and [Mn/Fe]. Our analysis leads to the identification of six GCs - NGC 6752, NGC 6656, NGC 6809, NGC 6273, NGC 6205, and NGC 6254 - that exhibit strong chemical similarities with $ω$ Cen, and which have metallicities that coincide with those of the two main peaks of $ω$ Cen's metallicity distribution. The chemical patterns of these clusters lead to the exclusion that they formed in progenitor galaxies with chemical enrichment histories similar to those of the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, Sagittarius, and Fornax. Once placed in kinematic spaces such as the energy - angular momentum plane, these GCs result scattered across an extended region, which is predicted by N-body simulations if their common progenitor was sufficiently massive compared to the MW. Our novel approach suggests a common origin for NGC 6752, NGC 6656, NGC 6809, NGC 6273, NGC 6205, NGC 6254 and $ω$ Cen, indicating that Nephele, as we propose to call the progenitor in which these GCs formed, played a substantial role in the Galaxy's history.

astro-ph.GA↗

arXiv2024

The Lunar Gravitational-wave Antenna: Mission Studies and Science Case

The Lunar Gravitational-wave Antenna (LGWA) is a proposed array of next-generation inertial sensors to monitor the response of the Moon to gravitational waves (GWs). Given the size of the Moon and the expected noise produced by the lunar seismic background, the LGWA would be able to observe GWs from about 1 mHz to 1 Hz. This would make the LGWA the missing link between space-borne detectors like LISA with peak sensitivities around a few millihertz and proposed future terrestrial detectors like Einstein Telescope or Cosmic Explorer. In this article, we provide a first comprehensive analysis of the LGWA science case including its multi-messenger aspects and lunar science with LGWA data. We also describe the scientific analyses of the Moon required to plan the LGWA mission.

gr-qc↗

arXiv2024

Prograde and retrograde stars in nuclear cluster mergers. Evolution of the supermassive black hole binary and the host galactic nucleus

We address the orbital distribution of stars in merging nuclear star clusters (NSCs) and the subsequent effects on supermassive black hole binary (SMBHB) evolution. We ran direct-summation $N$-body simulations with different initial conditions to do a detailed study of the resulting NSC after their progenitors had merged. Our findings reveal that prograde stars form a flattened structure, while retrograde stars have a more spherical distribution. The axial ratios of the prograde component vary based on the presence and mass ratio of the SMBHs. The fraction of prograde and retrograde stars depends on the merger orbital properties and the SMBH mass ratio. The interactions of retrograde stars with the SMBHB affect the eccentricity and separation evolution of the binary. Our analysis reveals a strong correlation between the angular momentum and eccentricity of the SMBH binary. This relationship could serve as a means to infer information about the stellar dynamics surrounding the binary. We find that prograde orbits are particularly close to the binary of SMBHs, a promising fact regarding extreme mass ratio inspiral (EMRI) production. Moreover, prograde and retrograde stars have different kinematic structures, with the prograde stars typically rotating faster than the retrograde ones. The line-of-sight velocity and velocity dispersion, as well as the velocity anisotropy of each NSC, depend on the initial merger orbital properties and SMBH mass ratios. The prograde and retrograde stars always show different behaviours. The distribution of stellar orbits and the dynamical properties of each kinematic population can potentially be used as a way to tell the properties of the parent nuclei apart, and has an important impact on expected rates of EMRIs, which will be detected by future gravitational wave observatories such as the Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA). [abridged]

astro-ph.GA↗

arXiv2024

A Wide Metallicity Range for Gyr-old Stars in the Nuclear Star Cluster

We report metallicities for three $\sim$Gyr-old stars in the Milky Way nuclear star cluster (NSC) using high-resolution near-infrared spectroscopy. We derive effective temperatures from a calibration with Sc line strength, which yields results in good agreement with other methods, and metallicities from spectral fits to Fe I lines. Our derived metallicities range from -1.2 < [Fe/H] < +0.5, a span of 1.7 dex. In addition we use isochrone projection to obtain masses of 1.6 to 4.3 M$_\odot$, and ages assuming single-star evolution. The oldest of these stars is 1.5 Gyr while the youngest and most metal-rich is only 100 Myr. The wide range in metallicity poses interesting questions concerning the chemical evolution and enrichment of the NSC and adds to the evidence for the presence of a young, metal-rich population in the NSC. We suggest that the candidate intermediate-age, metal-poor ([Fe/H] = -1.2) star may be best explained as a blue straggler from an underlying old population.

astro-ph.GA↗

arXiv2023

A cautionary lesson from Gaia systematics: the mono-metallic globular cluster NGC 5904

The study of the chemistry of the stellar populations in Globular Clusters (GCs) is a fundamental task to unveil their formation in the high-redshift universe and to reconstruct the build up of our Galaxy. Using metallicity estimates from BP/RP low-resolution Gaia DR3 spectra, a recent work presented the surprising detection of two stellar populations with distinct metallicities in the stellar stream of the GC NGC 5904, otherwise considered a mono-metallic system. The presence of these two populations, with [Fe/H]=-1.4 and [Fe/H]=-2.0 dex, was taken as the evidence of a merger origin of the cluster. In this Letter, using the same data set complemented by new robust metallicity estimates, we carry out a detailed analysis of the metallicity distribution of stars belonging both to the cluster and to its stellar stream, explicitly focusing on the subtle effects of data systematics. We demonstrate that the population at [Fe/H]~-2.0 dex is a data artefact due to error systematics, affecting especially faint stars. The new higher quality metallicity sample corroborates this finding, and it indicates the presence of only one population of stars with metallicity of [Fe/H]~-1.3 dex, in agreement with previous literature studies. We, therefore, conclude that both NGC 5904 and its stellar stream are mono-metallic systems, and emphasize the need of carefully examining systematic effects in large and complex data.

astro-ph.GA↗

arXiv2023

Multiple stellar population mass loss in massive Galactic globular clusters

The degree of mass loss, i.e. the fraction of stars lost by globular clusters, and specifically by their different populations, is still poorly understood. Many scenarios of the formation of multiple stellar populations, especially the ones involving self-enrichment, assume that the first generation (FG) was more massive at birth than now to reproduce the current mass of the second generation (SG). This assumption implies that, during their long-term evolution, clusters lose around $90\%$ of the FG. We have tested whether such strong mass loss could take place in a massive globular cluster orbiting the Milky Way at $4\ {\rm kpc}$ from the centre and composed of two generations. We perform a series of $N$-body simulations for ${12\ \rm Gyr}$ to probe the parameter space of internal cluster properties. We have derived that, for an extended FG and a low-mass second one, the cluster loses almost $98\%$ of its initial FG mass and the cluster mass can be as much as 20 times lower after a Hubble time. Furthermore, under these conditions, the derived fraction of SG stars, $f_{\rm enriched}$, falls in the range occupied by observed clusters of similar mass ($\sim 0.6-0.8$). In general, the parameters that affect the most the degree of mass loss are the presence or not of primordial segregation, the depth of the central potential, $W_{0,FG}$, the initial mass of the SG, $M^{ini}_{SG}$, and the initial half-mass radius of the SG, $r_{h,SG}$. Higher $M^{ini}_{SG}$ have not been found to imply higher final $f_{\rm enriched}$ due to the deeper cluster potential well which slows down mass loss.

astro-ph.GA↗

arXiv2023

Massive Black Hole Binaries as LISA Precursors in the Roman High Latitude Time Domain Survey

With its capacity to observe $\sim 10^{5-6}$ faint active galactic nuclei (AGN) out to redshift $z\approx 6$, Roman is poised to reveal a population of $10^{4-6}\, {\rm M_\odot}$ black holes during an epoch of vigorous galaxy assembly. By measuring the light curves of a subset of these AGN and looking for periodicity, Roman can identify several hundred massive black hole binaries (MBHBs) with 5-12 day orbital periods, which emit copious gravitational radiation and will inevitably merge on timescales of $10^{3-5}$ years. During the last few months of their merger, such binaries are observable with the Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA), a joint ESA/NASA gravitational wave mission set to launch in the mid-2030s. Roman can thus find LISA precursors, provide uniquely robust constraints on the LISA source population, help identify the host galaxies of LISA mergers, and unlock the potential of multi-messenger astrophysics with massive black hole binaries.

astro-ph.HE↗

arXiv2023

Nuclear star clusters as probes of dark matter halos: the case of the Sagittarius Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy

The Sagittarius dwarf spheroidal (Sgr dSph) galaxy is currently being accreted and disrupted by the tidal field of the Milky Way. Recent observations have shown that the central region of the dwarf hosts at least three different stellar populations, ranging from old and metal-poor over intermediate metal-rich to young metal-rich. While the intermediate-age metal-rich population has been identified as part of the galaxy, the oldest and youngest populations belong to M54, the nuclear star cluster (NSC) of the Sgr dSph galaxy. The old metal-poor component of M54 has been interpreted as at least one decayed GC which was initially orbiting its host galaxy. The youngest population formed in situ from gas accreted into M54 after its arrival at the centre of the host. In this work, we use the observed properties of M54 to explore the shape of the inner density profile of the Sgr dSph galaxy. To do so, we simulate the decay of M54 towards the centre of the dark matter (DM) halo of its host. We model the DM density profile using different central slopes, and we compare the results of the simulations to the most recent observations of the structural properties of M54. From this comparison, we conclude that a GC that decays in a DM halo with a density profile $\propto r^{-γ}$ and $γ\leq 1$ shows a rotational signal and flattening comparable to those observed for M54. Steeper profiles produce, instead, highly rotating and more flattened NSCs which do not match the properties of M54.

astro-ph.GA↗

arXiv2023

A Wide View of the Galactic Globular Cluster NGC 2808: Red Giant and Horizontal Branch Star Spatial Distributions

Wide-field and deep DECam multi-band photometry, combined with HST data for the core of the Galactic globular cluster NGC 2808, allowed us to study the distribution of various stellar sub-populations and stars in different evolutionary phases out to the cluster tidal radius. We used the C_ugi = (u-g)-(g-i) index to identify three chemically distinct sub-populations along the red giant branch and compared their spatial distributions. The most light-element enriched sub-population (P3) is more centrally concentrated; however, it shows a more extended distribution in the external regions of the cluster compared to the primordial (P1) and intermediate (P2) composition populations. Furthermore, the P3 sub-population centroid is off-center relative to those of the P1 and P2 groups. We also analyzed the spatial distribution of horizontal branch stars and found that the relative fraction of red horizontal branch stars increases for radial distances larger than ~ 1.5' while that of the blue and hotter stars decreases. These new observations, combined with literature spectroscopic measurements, suggest that the red horizontal branch stars are the progeny of all the stellar sub-populations in NGC 2808, i.e. primordial and light-element enhanced, while the blue stars are possibly the result of a combination of the "hot-flasher" and the "helium-enhanced" scenarios. A similar distribution of different red giant branch sub-populations and horizontal branch stars was also found for the most massive Galactic globular cluster, omega Cen, based on combined DECam and HST data, which suggests the two may share a similar origin.

astro-ph.GA↗

arXiv2023

Searching for clues of past binary supermassive black hole mergers in nuclear star clusters

Galaxy mergers are common processes in the Universe. As a large fraction of galaxies hosts at their centres a central supermassive black hole (SMBH), mergers can lead to the formation of a supermassive black hole binary (SMBHB). The formation of such a binary is more efficient when the SMBHs are embedded in a nuclear star cluster (NSC). NSCs are dense and massive stellar clusters present in the majority of the observed galaxies. Their central densities can reach up to $10^7\,M_\odot/{\rm pc}^3$ and their masses can be as large as a few $10^7\,M_\odot$. The direct detection of an SMBHB is observationally challenging. In this work, we illustrate how the large scale structural and dynamical properties of an NSC can help to identify nucleated galaxies that recently went through a merger that possibly led to the formation of a central SMBHB. Our models show that the merger can imprint signatures on the shape, density profile, rotation and velocity structure of the NSC. The strength of the signatures depends on the mass ratio between the SMBHs and on the orbital initial conditions of the merger. In addition, the number of hypervelocity stars produced in the mergers is linked to the SMBHB properties. The merger can also contribute to the formation of the nuclear stellar disc of the galaxy.

astro-ph.GA↗

arXiv2023

The distribution of globular clusters in kinematic spaces does not trace the accretion history of the host galaxy

Reconstructing how all the stellar components of the Galaxy formed and assembled over time, by studying the properties of the stars which make it, is the aim of Galactic archeology. In these last years, thanks to the launch of the ESA Gaia astrometric mission, and the development of many spectroscopic surveys, we are for the first time in the position to delve into the layers of the past of our galaxy. Globular clusters (GCs) play a fundamental role in this research field since they are among the oldest stellar systems in the Milky Way (MW) and so bear witness of its entire past. In the recent years, there have been several attempts to constrain the nature of clusters (accreted or formed in the MW itself) through the analysis of kinematic spaces and to reconstruct from this the properties of the accretions events experienced by the MW through time. This work aims to test a widely-used assumption about the clustering of the accreted populations of GCs in the integrals of motions space. We analyze a set of dissipation-less N-body simulations that reproduce the accretion of one or two satellites with their GC population on a MW-type galaxy. Our results demonstrate that a significant overlap between accreted and "kinematically-heated" in-situ GCs is expected in kinematic spaces, for mergers with mass ratios of 1:10. In contrast with standard assumptions made in the literature so far, we find that accreted GCs do not show dynamical coherence, that is they do not cluster in kinematic spaces. In addition, GCs can also be found in regions dominated by stars which have a different origin (i.e. different progenitor). This casts doubt on the association between GCs and field stars that is generally made in the literature to assign them to a common origin. Our findings severely question the recovered accretion history of the MW based on the phase-space clustering of the GC population.

astro-ph.GA↗

arXiv2023

The e-TidalGCs Project: Modeling the extra-tidal features generated by Galactic globular clusters

We present the e-TidalGCs Project which aims at modeling and predicting the extra-tidal features surrounding all Galactic globular clusters for which 6D phase space information, masses and sizes are available (currently 159 globular clusters). We focus the analysis and presentation of the results on the distribution of extra-tidal material on the sky, and on the different structures found at different heliocentric distances. We emphasize the wide variety of morphologies found: beyond the canonical tidal tails, our models reveal that the extra-tidal features generated by globular clusters take a wide variety of shapes, from thin and elongated shapes, to thick, and complex halo-like structures. We also compare some of the most well studied stellar streams found around Galactic globular clusters to our model predictions, namely those associated to the clusters NGC 3201, NGC 4590, NGC 5466 and Pal 5. Additionally, we investigate how the distribution and extension in the sky of the simulated streams vary with the Galactic potential by making use of three different models, containing or not a central spheroid, or a stellar bar. Overall, our models predict that the mass lost by the current globular cluster population in the field from the last 5 Gyrs is between $0.3-2.1\times10^{7}M_{\odot}$, an amount comparable between 7-55 % of current mass. Most of this lost mass is found in the inner Galaxy, with the half-mass radius of this population being between 4-6 kpc. The outputs of the simulations will be publicly available, at a time when the ESA Gaia mission and complementary spectroscopic surveys are delivering exquisite data to which these models can be compared.

astro-ph.GA↗