Perturbative aspects of the electroweak phase transition with a complex singlet and implications for gravitational wave predictions
We present a detailed analysis of strong first-order electroweak phase transitions within the extension of the Standard Model by a complex scalar singlet (cxSM). Focusing on the impact of renormalization scale and gauge dependence, we systematically compare commonly used perturbative frameworks for predicting thermodynamic observables that characterize the phase transition and the associated gravitational-wave (GW) spectrum. These include both the four-dimensional ($4D$) formalism and the dimensionally reduced three-dimensional effective field theory ($3D$ EFT) approach in different renormalization schemes. Within the $3D$ EFT, we compute the effective potential up to two-loop order in a general $R_\xi$ gauge, and demonstrate that applying the $\hbar$-expansion yields gauge-independent results in excellent agreement with those obtained from a direct minimization of the loop-corrected potential. In contrast, large discrepancies between the two methods persist in the $4D$ approaches. We find that, across most of the parameter space, the $3D$ EFT approach provides the most robust predictions for phase-transition parameters and GW spectra, reducing theoretical uncertainties in the GW peak amplitude by more than an order of magnitude compared to the $4D$ calculations. We point out, however, that the $3D$ EFT approach is subject to an additional theory uncertainty from truncating the EFT at finite operator dimension and show that higher-dimensional operators within the $3D$ EFT approach can substantially modify the predicted transition strength and GW signals. This indicates a potential breakdown of the high-temperature expansion precisely in the region with the lowest transition temperatures, where the strongest GW signals are expected and the detection prospects with LISA are most promising.