arXiv subjects

Benjamin C. Bromley

Publications and source records attributed to Benjamin C. Bromley.

At least 37 records · Page 2Linked to original sources

arXiv2020

Craters on Charon: Impactors From a Collisional Cascade Among Trans-Neptunian Objects

We consider whether equilibrium size distributions from collisional cascades match the frequency of impactors derived from New Horizons crater counts on Charon (Singer et al 2019). Using an analytic model and a suite of numerical simulations, we demonstrate that collisional cascades generate wavy size distributions; the morphology of the waves depends on the binding energy of solids $Q_d^\star$ and the collision velocity $v_c$. For an adopted minimum size of solids, $r_{min}$ = 1 micron, and collision velocity $v_c$ = 1-3 km/sec, the waves are rather insensitive to the gravitational component of $Q_d^\star$. If the bulk strength component of $Q_d^\star$ is $Q_s r^{e_s}$ for particles with radius $r$, size distributions with small $Q_s$ are much wavier than those with large $Q_s$; systems with $e_s \approx -0.4$ have stronger waves than systems with $e_s \approx 0$. Detailed comparisons with the New Horizons data suggest that a collisional cascade among solids with a bulk strength intermediate between weak ice (Leinhardt & Stewart 2012) and normal ice (Schlichting et al 2013) produces size distributions fairly similar to the size distribution of impactors on Charon. If the surface density $Σ$ of the protosolar nebula varies with semimajor axis $a$ as $Σ\approx 30~{\rm g~cm^{-2}} (a / {\rm 1~au})^{-3/2}$, the time scale for a cascade to generate an approximate equilibrium is 100-300 Myr at 45 au and 10-30 Myr at 25 au. Although it is necessary to perform more complete evolutionary calculations of the Kuiper belt, collisional cascades are a viable model for producing the size distribution of solids that impacted Charon throughout its history.

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arXiv2020

A Pluto-Charon Concerto: An Impact on Charon as the Origin of the Small Satellites

We consider a scenario where the small satellites of Pluto and Charon grew within a disk of debris from an impact between Charon and a trans-Neptunian Object (TNO). After Charon's orbital motion boosts the debris into a disk-like structure, rapid orbital damping of meter-size or smaller objects is essential to prevent the subsequent re-accretion or dynamical ejection by the binary. From analytical estimates and simulations of disk evolution, we estimate an impactor radius of 30-100 km; smaller (larger) radii apply to an oblique (direct) impact. Although collisions between large TNOs and Charon are unlikely today, they were relatively common within the first 0.1-1 Gyr of the solar system. Compared to models where the small satellites agglomerate in the debris left over by the giant impact that produced the Pluto-Charon binary planet, satellite formation from a later impact on Charon avoids the destabilizing resonances that sweep past the satellites during the early orbital expansion of the binary.

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arXiv2019

A Pluto-Charon Sonata III. Growth of Charon from a Circum-Pluto Ring of Debris

Current theory considers two options for the formation of the Pluto-Charon binary (Canup 2005, 2011; Desch 2015). In the `hit-and-run' model, a lower mass projectile barely hits the more massive Pluto, kicks up some debris, and remains bound to Pluto (see also Asphaug et al. 2006). In a `graze-and-merge' scenario, the projectile ejects substantial debris as it merges with Pluto (see also Canup 2001). To investigate the graze-and-merge idea in more detail, we consider the growth of Charon-mass objects within a circum-Pluto ring of solids. Numerical calculations demonstrate that Charon analogs form rapidly within a swarm of planetesimals with initial radii of 145-230 km. On time scales of roughly 30-100 days, newly-formed Charon analogs have semimajor axes, a = 5-6 Pluto radii, and orbital eccentricities, e = 0.1-0.3, similar to Charon analogs that remain bound after hit-and-run collisions with Pluto. Although the early growth of Charon analogs generates rings of small particles at a = 50-275 Pluto radii, ejection of several 145-230 km leftovers by the central Pluto-Charon binary removes these small solids in 10-100 yr. Simple estimates suggest small particles might survive the passage of 10-20 km objects ejected by the central binary. Our results indicate that the Pluto-Charon circumbinary satellite system was not formed by a graze-and-merge impact when the formation of Charon within a circum-Pluto disk leads to the ejection of several 100-200 km particles through the orbital plane of the Pluto-Charon binary. If a growing Charon ejects only much smaller particles, however, graze-and-merge impacts are a plausible formation channel for the Pluto-Charon binary and an ensemble of small, circumbinary satellites.

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arXiv2019

Ohmic heating of asteroids around magnetic stars

We consider the impact of electromagnetic induction and Ohmic heating on a conducting planetary object that orbits a magnetic star. Power dissipated as heat saps orbital energy. If this heat is trapped by an insulating crust or mantle, interior temperatures increase substantially. We provide a quantitative description of this behavior and discuss the astrophysical scenarios in which it might occur. Magnetic fields around some main-sequence stars and white dwarfs are strong enough to cause the decay of close-in orbits of asteroids and dwarf planets, drawing them through the Roche limit on Myr time scales. We confirm that Ohmic heating around neutron stars is driven by the rotation of the stellar magnetic dipole, not orbital dynamics. In any case, heating can raise interior temperatures of asteroids or dwarf planets on close-in orbits to well above liquidus. Hot material escaping to the surface may lead to volcanic ejections that can obscure the host star (as in the light curve of KIC 8462852) and pollute its atmosphere (as observed with metal-rich white dwarfs). We speculate that mixing of a volatile-rich mantle or crust with material from an induction-heated core may lead to an explosion that could destroy the asteroid prior to tidal break-up.

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arXiv2019

A Pluto--Charon Sonata: Dynamical Limits on the Masses of the Small Satellites

During 2005-2012, images from Hubble Space Telescope (HST) revealed four moons orbiting Pluto-Charon (Weaver et al 2006, Showalter et al 2011, 2012). Although their orbits and geometric shapes are well-known, the 2$σ$ uncertainties in the masses of the two largest satellites - Nix and Hydra - are comparable to their HST masses (Brozovic et al 2015, Showalter & Hamilton 2015, Weaver et al 2016). Remarkably, gravitational $n$-body computer calculations of the long-term system stability on 0.1-1 Gyr time scales place much tighter constraints on the masses of Nix and Hydra, with upper limits $\sim$ 10% larger than the HST mass. Constraints on the mass density using size measurements from New Horizons suggest Nix and Hydra formed in icier material than Pluto and Charon.

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arXiv2018

Nearby high-speed stars in Gaia DR2

We investigate the nature of nearby (10-15 kpc) high-speed stars in the Gaia DR2 archive identified on the basis of parallax, proper motion and radial velocity. Together with a consideration of their kinematic, orbital, and photometric properties, we develop a novel strategy for evaluating whether high speed stars are statistical outliers of the bound population or unbound stars capable of escaping the Galaxy. Out of roughly 1.5 million stars with radial velocities, proper motions, and 5-sigma parallaxes, we identify just over 100 high-speed stars. Of these, only two have a nearly 100% chance of being unbound, with indication that they are not just bound outliers; both are likely hyper-runaway stars. The rest of the high speed stars are likely statistical outliers. We use the sample of high-speed stars to demonstrate that radial velocity alone provides a poor discriminant of nearby, unbound stars. However, nearby, unbound stars are efficiently identified from the tangential velocity, using just parallax and proper motion. Within the full Gaia DR2 archive of stars with 5-sigma parallax and proper motion but no radial velocity, we identify a sample of 19 with speeds significantly larger than the local escape speed of the Milky Way based on tangential motion alone.

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arXiv2018

A Framework for Planet Detection with Faint Light-curve Echoes

A stellar flare can brighten a planet in orbit around its host star, producing a light curve with a faint echo. This echo, and others from subsequent flares, can lead to the planet's discovery, revealing its orbital configuration and physical characteristics. A challenge is that an echo is faint relative to the flare and measurement noise. Here, we use a method, based on autocorrelation function estimation, to extract faint planetary echoes from stellar flare light curves. A key component of our approach is that we compensate for planetary motion, measures of echo strength are then co-added into a strong signal. Using simple flare models in simulations, we explore the feasibility of this method with current technology for detecting planets around nearby M dwarfs. We also illustrate how our method can tightly constrain a planet's orbital elements and the mass of its host star. This technique is most sensitive to giant planets within 0.1 au of active flare stars and offers new opportunities for planet discovery in orientations and configurations that are inaccessible with other planet search methods.

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arXiv2018

A Pluto-Charon Sonata: The Dynamical Architecture of the Circumbinary Satellite System

Using a large suite of n-body simulations, we explore the discovery space for new satellites in the Pluto-Charon system. For the adopted masses and orbits of the known satellites, there are few stable prograde or polar orbits with semimajor axes $a \lesssim 1.1~a_H$, where $a_H$ is the semimajor axis of the outermost moon Hydra. Small moons with radii $r \lesssim$ 2 km and $a \lesssim 1.1~a_H$ are ejected on time scales ranging from several yr to more than 10 Myr. Orbits with $a \gtrsim 1.1~a_H$ are stable on time scales exceeding 100 Myr. Near-IR and mid-IR imaging with JWST and ground-based occultation campaigns with 2-3-m class telescopes can detect 1-2 km satellites outside the orbit of Hydra. Searches for these moons enable new constraints on the masses of the known satellites and on theories for circumbinary satellite formation.

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arXiv2018

Impact of the Galactic Disk and Large Magellanic Cloud on the Trajectories of Hypervelocity Stars Ejected from the Galactic Center

We consider how the gravity of the Galactic disk and the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) modifies the radial motions of hypervelocity stars (HVSs) ejected from the Galactic Center. For typical HVSs ejected towards low (high) Galactic latitudes, the disk bends trajectories by up to 30 degrees (3-10 deg). For many lines-of-sight through the Galaxy, the LMC produces similar and sometimes larger deflections. Bound HVSs suffer larger deflections than unbound HVSs. Gravitational focusing by the LMC also generates a factor of two overdensity along the line-of-sight towards the LMC. With large enough samples, observations can detect the non-radial orbits and the overdensity of HVSs towards the LMC. For any Galactic potential model, the Galactic rest-frame tangential velocity provides an excellent way to detect unbound and nearly bound HVSs within 10 kpc of the Sun. Similarly, the rest-frame radial velocity isolates unbound HVSs beyond 10-15 kpc from the Sun. Among samples of unbound HVSs, measurements of the radial and tangential velocity serve to distinguish Galactic Center ejections from other types of high velocity stars.

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arXiv2017

Numerical Simulations of Gaseous Disks Generated from Collisional Cascades at the Roche Limits of White Dwarf Stars

We consider the long-term evolution of gaseous disks fed by the vaporization of small particles produced in a collisional cascade inside the Roche limit of a 0.6 Msun white dwarf. Adding solids with radius \r0\ at a constant rate $\dot{M}_0$ into a narrow annulus leads to two distinct types of evolution. When $\dot{M}_0 > \dot{M}_{0,crit}$ = $3 \times 10^4 ~ (r_0 / {\rm 1~km})^{3.92}$~g s$^{-1}$, the cascade generates a fairly steady accretion disk where the mass transfer rate of gas onto the white dwarf is roughly $\dot{M}_0$ and the mass in gas is $M_g \approx 2.3 \times 10^{22} ~ (\dot{M}_0 / 10^{10}~g~s^{-1}) ~ ({\rm 1500~K} / T_0) ~ (10^{-3} / α)$~g, where $T_0$ is the temperature of the gas near the Roche limit and $α$ is the dimensionless viscosity parameter. If $ \dot{M}_0 < \dot{M}_{0,crit}$, the system alternates between high states with large mass transfer rates and low states with negligible accretion. Although either mode of evolution adds significant amounts of metals to the white dwarf photosphere, none of our calculations yield a vertically thin ensemble of solids inside the Roche limit. X-ray observations can place limits on the mass transfer rate and test this model for metallic line white dwarfs.

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arXiv2017

Numerical Simulations of Collisional Cascades at the Roche Limits of White Dwarf Stars

We consider the long-term collisional and dynamical evolution of solid material orbiting in a narrow annulus near the Roche limit of a white dwarf. With orbital velocities of 300 km/sec, systems of solids with initial eccentricity $e \gtrsim 10^{-3}$ generate a collisional cascade where objects with radii $r \lesssim$ 100--300 km are ground to dust. This process converts 1-100 km asteroids into 1 $μ$m particles in $10^2 - 10^6$ yr. Throughout this evolution, the swarm maintains an initially large vertical scale height $H$. Adding solids at a rate $\dot{M}$ enables the system to find an equilibrium where the mass in solids is roughly constant. This equilibrium depends on $\dot{M}$ and $r_0$, the radius of the largest solid added to the swarm. When $r_0 \lesssim$ 10 km, this equilibrium is stable. For larger $r_0$, the mass oscillates between high and low states; the fraction of time spent in high states ranges from 100% for large $\dot{M}$ to much less than 1% for small $\dot{M}$. During high states, the stellar luminosity reprocessed by the solids is comparable to the excess infrared emission observed in many metallic line white dwarfs.

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arXiv2017

Terrestrial planet formation: Dynamical shake-up and the low mass of Mars

We consider a dynamical shake-up model to explain the low mass of Mars and the lack of planets in the asteroid belt. In our scenario, a secular resonance with Jupiter sweeps through the inner solar system as the solar nebula depletes, pitting resonant excitation against collisional damping in the Sun's protoplanetary disk. We report the outcome of extensive numerical calculations of planet formation from planetesimals in the terrestrial zone, with and without dynamical shake-up. If the Sun's gas disk within the terrestrial zone depletes in roughly a million years, then the sweeping resonance inhibits planet formation in the asteroid belt and substantially limits the size of Mars. This phenomenon likely occurs around other stars with long-period massive planets, suggesting that asteroid belt analogs are common.

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arXiv2017

Variations on Debris Disks IV. An Improved Analytical Model for Collisional Cascades

We derive a new analytical model for the evolution of a collisional cascade in a thin annulus around a single central star. In this model, $r_{max}~$ the size of the largest object declines with time (t); $r_{max} \propto t^{-γ}$, with $γ$ = 0.1-0.2. Compared to standard models where $r_{max}~$ is constant in time, this evolution results in a more rapid decline of $M_d$, the total mass of solids in the annulus and $L_d$, the luminosity of small particles in the annulus: $M_d \propto t^{-(γ+ 1)}~$ and $L_d \propto t^{-(γ/2 + 1)}~~$. We demonstrate that the analytical model provides an excellent match to a comprehensive suite of numerical coagulation simulations for annuli at 1 AU and at 25 AU. If the evolution of real debris disks follows the predictions of the analytical or numerical models, the observed luminosities for evolved stars require up to a factor of two more mass than predicted by previous analytical models.

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arXiv2016

Searching for Planet Nine with Coadded WISE and NEOWISE-Reactivation Images

A distant, as yet unseen ninth planet has been invoked to explain various observations of the outer solar system. While such a 'Planet Nine', if it exists, is most likely to be discovered via reflected light in the optical, it may emit much more strongly at 3$-$5$μ$m than simple blackbody predictions would suggest, depending on its atmospheric properties (Fortney et al. 2016). As a result, Planet Nine may be detectable at 3.4$μ$m with WISE, but single exposures are too shallow except at relatively small distances ($d_9 \lesssim 430$ AU). We develop a method to search for Planet Nine far beyond the W1 single-exposure sensitivity, to distances as large as 800 AU, using inertial coadds of W1 exposures binned into $\sim$1 day intervals. We apply our methodology to $\sim$2000 square degrees of sky identified by Holman & Payne (2016) as a potentially likely Planet Nine location, based on the Fienga et al. (2016) Cassini ranging analysis. We do not detect a plausible Planet Nine candidate, but are able to derive a detailed completeness curve, ruling out its presence within the parameter space searched at $W1 < 16.66$ (90% completeness). Our method uses all publicly available W1 imaging, spanning 2010 January to 2015 December, and will become more sensitive with future NEOWISE-Reactivation releases of additional W1 exposures. We anticipate that our method will be applicable to the entire high Galactic latitude sky, and we will extend our search to that full footprint in the near future.

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arXiv2016

Rocky Planet Formation: Quick and Neat

We reconsider the commonly held assumption that warm debris disks are tracers of terrestrial planet formation. The high occurrence rate inferred for Earth-mass planets around mature solar-type stars based on exoplanet surveys (roughly 20%) stands in stark contrast to the low incidence rate (less than 2-3%) of warm dusty debris around solar-type stars during the expected epoch of terrestrial planet assembly (roughly 10 Myr). If Earth-mass planets at AU distances are a common outcome of the planet formation process, this discrepancy suggests that rocky planet formation occurs more quickly and/or is much neater than traditionally believed, leaving behind little in the way of a dust signature. Alternatively, the incidence rate of terrestrial planets has been overestimated or some previously unrecognized physical mechanism removes warm dust efficiently from the terrestrial planet region. A promising removal mechanism is gas drag in a residual gaseous disk with a surface density of roughly or somewhat more than 0.001% of the minimum mass solar nebula.

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arXiv2016

Making Planet Nine: Pebble Accretion at 250--750 AU in a Gravitationally Unstable Ring

We investigate the formation of icy super-Earth mass planets within a gravitationally unstable ring of solids orbiting at 250-750 AU around a 1 solar mass star. Coagulation calculations demonstrate that a system of a few large oligarchs and a swarm of pebbles generates a super-Earth within 100-200 Myr at 250 AU and within 1-2 Gyr at 750 AU. Systems with more than ten oligarchs fail to yield super-Earths over the age of the solar system. As these systems evolve, destructive collisions produce detectable debris disks with luminosities of $10^{-5}$ to $10^{-3}$ relative to the central star.

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arXiv2016

Making Planet Nine: A Scattered Giant in the Outer Solar System

Correlations in the orbits of several minor planets in the outer solar system suggest the presence of a remote, massive Planet Nine. With at least ten times the mass of the Earth and a perihelion well beyond 100 AU, Planet Nine poses a challenge to planet formation theory. Here we expand on a scenario in which the planet formed closer to the Sun and was gravitationally scattered by Jupiter or Saturn onto a very eccentric orbit in an extended gaseous disk. Dynamical friction with the gas then allowed the planet to settle in the outer solar system. We explore this possibility with a set of numerical simulations. Depending on how the gas disk evolves, scattered super-Earths or small gas giants settle on a range of orbits, with perihelion distances as large as 300 AU. Massive disks that clear from the inside out on million-year time scales yield orbits that allow a super-Earth or gas giant to shepherd the minor planets as observed. A massive planet can achieve a similar orbit in a persistent, low-mass disk over the lifetime of the solar system.

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arXiv2015

Variations on Debris Disks III. Collisional Cascades and Giant Impacts in the Terrestrial Zones of Solar-type Stars

We analyze two new sets of coagulation calculations for solid particles orbiting within the terrestrial zone of a solar-type star. In models of collisional cascades, numerical simulations demonstrate that the total mass, the mass in 1 mm and smaller particles, and the dust luminosity decline with time more rapidly than predicted by analytic models, $\propto t^{-n}$ with $n \approx$ 1.1-1.2 instead of 1. Size distributions derived from the numerical calculations follow analytic predictions at radii less than 0.1 km but are shallower than predicted at larger sizes. In simulations of planet formation, the dust luminosity declines more slowly than in pure collisional cascades, with $n \approx$ 0.5-0.8 instead of 1.1-1.2. Throughout this decline, giant impacts produce large, observable spikes in dust luminosity which last roughly 0.01-0.1 Myr and recur every 1-10 Myr. If most solar-type stars have Earth mass planets with $a \lesssim$ 1-2 AU, observations of debris around 1-100 Myr stars allow interesting tests of theory. Current data preclude theories where terrestrial planets form out of 1000 km or larger planetesimals. Although the observed frequency of debris disks among $\gtrsim$ 30 Myr old stars agrees with our calculations, the observed frequency of warm debris among 5-20 Myr old stars is smaller than predicted.

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