arXiv subjects

Carl A. Schmidt

Publications and source records attributed to Carl A. Schmidt.

9 recordsLinked to original sources

arXiv2026

Observational planning for the 2026 August 5 Falcon 9 Upper Stage lunar impact

On 2026 August 5, at approximately 06:35 UT, a spent Falcon 9 upper stage will impact the lunar surface near Einstein Crater. This event will occur on sunlit terrain near the eastern limb as seen from Earth. The impact flash and resultant ejecta plume from this event are potentially observable from ground- and space-based observational facilities. This event provides an opportunity to attempt the recording of an artificial impact in real-time; although many of the properties of the event (such as visual magnitude) are imprecisely predicted at present. Moreover, this event provides an opportunity to test a pipeline for localising impacts on the lunar surface for future seismic experiments, investigating the dust and plume dynamics from impact events on the Moon, and considering hazards from artificial space debris impacts. Both professional and amateur astronomers are encouraged to attempt observations of this event.

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arXiv2026

Plasma and Thermal Processing Leading to Spatial and Temporal Variability of the Trapped O2 at Europa and Ganymede

We describe the physical processes that affect the formation, trapping, and outgassing of O2 at Europa and Ganymede. Following Voyager measurements of their ambient magnetospheric plasmas, laboratory data indicated that observed ions, mostly ejected from volcanic Io, would in turn impact and sputtering their surfaces, decomposing the ice producing thin oxygen atmospheres. Subsequently, Europa and Ganymede's O2 atmospheres were inferred from O aurora, condensed O2 bands identified at 5773 and 6225 Angstroms, and their atmospheres were shown to have a dusk/dawn enhancement, confirmed by recent Juno data. Although plasma produces these observables, processes that occur within the topmost surface are not well understood. Here, we note that the incident plasma particles produce nonequilibrium defect density locally in the surface ice grains. Defect diffusion within these grains leads to the formation of voids and molecular products, some of which are volatile. Although some volatiles are released into the satellite atmospheres, others are trapped at defect sites or trapped in voids, creating bubbles whose lifetimes are limited by the plasma-induced destruction rate. We discuss how trapping competes with annealing of the radiation damage, and how hemispheric differences at Europa and Ganymede, roughly determine the observed trend with latitude of O2 bands. We discuss the relative importance of condensed O2 and O2 adsorbed on regolith grains as atmospheric sources, accounting for dusk/dawn enhancements and temporal variability reported in condensed O2 band depths. Since plasma-induced damage and thermal annealing timescales drive oxidant variability on icy moons (likely also Callisto, Dione, and Rhea), they can help determine volatile downwelling, a potentially metabolic source for their oceans, and upwelling of other trapped oxidants (e.g. CO2) suggestive of ongoing geologic activity.

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arXiv2025

Volcanic Satellites Tidally Venting Na, K, SO2 in Optical & Infrared Light

Recent infrared spectroscopy from the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) has spurred analyses of common volcanic gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), alongside alkali metals sodium (Na I) and potassium (K I) surrounding the hot Saturn WASP-39 b. We report more than an order-of-magnitude of variability in the density of neutral Na, K, and SO2 between ground-based measurements and JWST, at distinct epochs, hinting at exogenic physical processes similar to those sourcing Io's extended atmosphere and torus. Tidally-heated volcanic satellite simulations sputtering gas into a cloud or toroid orbiting the planet, are able to reproduce the probed line-of-sight column density variations. The estimated SO2 flux is consistent with tidal gravitation predictions, with a Na/SO2 ratio far smaller than Io's. Although stable satellite orbits at this system are known to be < 15.3 hours, several high-resolution alkali Doppler shift observations are required to constrain a putative orbit. Due to the Roche limit interior to the planetary photosphere at ~ 8 hours, atmosphere-exosphere interactions are expected to be especially important at this system.

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arXiv2025

Doppler Shifted Transient Sodium Detection by KECK/HIRES

We carried out the first high-resolution transit observations of the exoplanet WASP-49 Ab with Keck/HIRES. Upon custom wavelength calibration we achieve a Doppler RV precision of $<$ 60 ${\rm m\,s}^{-1}$. This is an improvement in RV stability of roughly 240 ${\rm m\,s}^{-1}$ with respect to the instrument standard. We report an average sodium flux residual of $Δ\mathcal{F}_{NaD}/ \mathcal{F}_{\star} (λ) \sim$ 3.2 $\pm$ 0.4 $\%$ (8.0 $σ$) comparable to previous studies. Interestingly, an average Doppler shift of -6.2 $\pm$ 0.5 ${\rm km\,s}^{-1}$ (12.4 $σ$) is identified offset from the exoplanet rest frame. The velocity residuals \textit{in time} trace a blueshift (v$_{Γ, ingress} \sim$ -10.3 $\pm$ 1.9 ${\rm km\,s}^{-1}$) to redshift (v$_{Γ, egress} \sim$ +4.1 $\pm$ 1.5 ${\rm km\,s}^{-1}$) suggesting the origin of the observed sodium is unlikely from the atmosphere of the planet. The average Na light curves indicate a depth of $Δ\mathcal{F}_{NaD} /\mathcal{F}_{\star} (t) \sim$ 0.47 $\pm$ 0.04 % (11.7 $σ$) enduring $\lesssim$ 90 minutes with a half-max duration of $\sim$ 40.1 minutes. Frequent high-resolution spectroscopic observations will be able to characterize the periodicity of the observed Doppler shifts. Considering the origin of the transient sodium gas is of unknown geometry, a co-orbiting natural satellite may be a likely source.

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arXiv2024

Redshifted Sodium Transient near Exoplanet Transit

Neutral sodium (Na I) is an alkali metal with a favorable absorption cross section such that tenuous gases are easily illuminated at select transiting exoplanet systems. We examine both the time-averaged and time-series alkali spectral flux individually, over 4 nights at a hot Saturn system on a $\sim$ 2.8 day orbit about a Sun-like star WASP-49 A. Very Large Telescope/ESPRESSO observations are analyzed, providing new constraints. We recover the previously confirmed residual sodium flux uniquely when averaged, whereas night-to-night Na I varies by more than an order of magnitude. On HARPS/3.6-m Epoch II, we report a Doppler redshift at $v_{ Γ, \mathrm{NaD}} =$ +9.7 $\pm$ 1.6 km/s with respect to the planet's rest frame. Upon examining the lightcurves, we confirm night-to-night variability, on the order of $\sim$ 1-4 % in NaD rarely coinciding with exoplanet transit, not readily explained by stellar activity, starspots, tellurics, or the interstellar medium. Coincident with the $\sim$+10 km/s Doppler redshift, we detect a transient sodium absorption event dF$_{\mathrm{NaD}}$/F$_{\star}$ = 3.6 $\pm$ 1 % at a relative difference of $ΔF_{\mathrm{NaD}} (t) \sim$ 4.4 $\pm$ 1 %, enduring $Δt_{\mathrm{NaD}} \gtrsim$ 40 minutes. Since exoplanetary alkali signatures are blueshifted due to the natural vector of radiation pressure, estimated here at roughly $\sim$ -5.7 km/s, the radial velocity is rather at +15.4 km/s, far larger than any known exoplanet system. Given that the redshift magnitude v$_Γ$ is in between the Roche limit and dynamically stable satellite orbits, the transient sodium may be a putative indication of a natural satellite orbiting WASP-49 A b.

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arXiv2024

Jovian sodium nebula and Io plasma torus S$^+$ and brightnesses 2017 -- 2023: insights into volcanic vs. sublimation supply

We present first results derived from the largest collection of contemporaneously recorded Jovian sodium nebula and Io plasma torus (IPT) in [S II] 673.1 nm images assembled to date. The data were recorded by the Planetary Science Institute's Io Input/Output observatory (IoIO) and provide important context to Io geologic and atmospheric studies as well as the Juno mission and supporting observations. Enhancements in the observed emission are common, typically lasting 1 -- 3 months, such that the average flux of material from Io is determined by the enhancements, not any quiescent state. The enhancements are not seen at periodicities associated with modulation in solar insolation of Io's surface, thus physical process(es) other than insolation-driven sublimation must ultimately drive the bulk of Io's atmospheric escape. We suggest that geologic activity, likely involving volcanic plumes, drives escape.

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arXiv2023

Sodium Brightening of (3200) Phaethon Near Perihelion

Sunskirting asteroid (3200) Phaethon has been repeatedly observed in STEREO HI1 imagery to anomalously brighten and produce an antisunward tail for a few days near each perihelion passage, phenomena previously attributed to the ejection of micron-sized dust grains. Color imaging by the SOHO LASCO coronagraphs during the 2022 May apparition indicate that the observed brightening and tail development instead capture the release of sodium atoms, which resonantly fluoresce at the 589.0/589.6 nm D lines. While HI1's design bandpass nominally excludes the D lines, filter degradation has substantially increased its D line sensitivity, as quantified by the brightness of Mercury's sodium tail in HI1 imagery. Furthermore, the expected fluorescence efficiency and acceleration of sodium atoms under solar radiation readily reproduce both the photometric and morphological behaviors observed by LASCO and HI1 during the 2022 apparition and the 17 earlier apparitions since 1997. This finding connects Phaethon to the broader population of sunskirting and sungrazing comets observed by SOHO, which often also exhibit bright sodium emission with minimal visible dust, but distinguishes it from other sunskirting asteroids without detectable sodium production under comparable solar heating. These differences may reflect variations in the degree of sodium depletion of near-surface material, and thus the extent and/or timing of any past or present resurfacing activity.

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arXiv2020

Lunar Volatiles and Solar System Science

Understanding the origin and evolution of the lunar volatile system is not only compelling lunar science, but also fundamental Solar System science. This white paper (submitted to the US National Academies' Decadal Survey in Planetary Science and Astrobiology 2023-2032) summarizes recent advances in our understanding of lunar volatiles, identifies outstanding questions for the next decade, and discusses key steps required to address these questions.

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arXiv2019

Large Volcanic Event on Io Inferred from Jovian Sodium Nebula Brightening

Using narrow-band images recorded on over 150 nights by the 35 cm coronagraph which comprises PSI's Io Input/Output Facility (IoIO), we detected a 6-month long enhancement in the Jovian sodium nebula. The onset of the enhancement occurred in the mid December 2017 -- early January 2018 timeframe. Sodium emission over the IoIO 0.4 degree field-of-view of was seen to increase through January 2018 and peak in early March 2018. By early June 2018, the surface brightness of the emission returned to the value seen 2017 April -- June, making this the longest such event observed by this technique (Brown & Bouchez 1997, Yoneda et al. 2015) and comparable in length to that observed by the Galileo Dust Detector in 2000 (Krueger et al. 2003). A new IR hot-spot was found on Io near Susanoo/Mulungu paterae between January 2 and 12, however this hot-spot was neither bright nor long-lasting enough to have been independently identified as the source of a major sodium nebula enhancement. Furthermore, no other report of this event has been made despite a significant number of observations of the Jovian system by and in support of NASA's Juno mission. This detection therefore places those observations in valuable context and highlights the importance of synoptic observations by facilities such as IoIO, which provide a global view of neutral material in the Jovian magnetosphere.

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