arXiv subjects

Christopher F. McKee

Publications and source records attributed to Christopher F. McKee.

At least 109 records · Page 6Linked to original sources

arXiv2002

Massive star formation in 100,000 years from turbulent and pressurized molecular clouds

Massive stars (with mass m_* > 8 solar masses) are fundamental to the evolution of galaxies, because they produce heavy elements, inject energy into the interstellar medium, and possibly regulate the star formation rate. The individual star formation time, t_*f, determines the accretion rate of the star; the value of the former quantity is currently uncertain by many orders of magnitude, leading to other astrophysical questions. For example, the variation of t_*f with stellar mass dictates whether massive stars can form simultaneously with low-mass stars in clusters. Here we show that t_*f is determined by conditions in the star's natal cloud, and is typically ~10^5 yr. The corresponding mass accretion rate depends on the pressure within the cloud - which we relate to the gas surface density - and on both the instantaneous and final stellar masses. Characteristic accretion rates are sufficient to overcome radiation pressure from ~100 solar mass protostars, while simultaneously driving intense bipolar gas outflows. The weak dependence of t_*f on the final mass of the star allows high- and low-mass star formation to occur nearly simultaneously in clusters.

astro-ph↗

arXiv2002

Time Dependence of the Ultraviolet Radiation Field in the Local Interstellar Medium

Far Ultraviolet radiation has been recognized as the main source of heating of the neutral interstellar gas, and, as a consequence, it determines whether the thermal balance of the neutral gas results in cold ($T\sim 50 - 100 K$) clouds (CNM), warm ($T \sim 10^4 K$) clouds (WNM), or a combination of the two. High FUV fields convert the neutral gas to WNM, while low fields result in CNM. The sources of FUV radiation are the short-lived massive stars that generally originate in associations that form in Giant Molecular Clouds present in the galactic disk. Using McKee & Williams' (1997) distribution of birthrates for OB associations in the Galaxy, we determine the expected behavior of the time-dependent FUV field for random positions in the local ISM. The FUV field is calculated in two bands (912-1100 Åand 912-2070 Å) and at the wavelength 1400 Å. Our median value for the [912-2070 Å] band is $G_0=1.6$ times Habing's (1968) value for the radiation field at the solar circle in this band, and quite close to Draine's (1976) value, $G_0=1.7$. Due to attenuation by dust, only associations within about 500 pc contribute significantly to the energy density at a given point. The FUV field is asymmetric at a given point, and the asymmetry grows for higher fields. The FUV field fluctuates with a variety of amplitudes, the larger ones being less frequent. The mean field is about twice the median field because of these fluctuations, or spikes, in the radiation field. These spikes, which last $\sim 30$ Myr, are caused by the infrequent birth of nearby associations. We also model shorter duration spikes caused by runaway OB stars. The presence of a fluctuating heating rate created by the fluctuating FUV field converts CNM to WNM and vice versa.

astro-ph↗

arXiv2001

Trans-Relativistic Supernovae, Circumstellar Gamma-Ray Bursts, and Supernova 1998bw

Supernova (SN) 1998bw and gamma-ray burst (GRB) 980425 offer the first direct evidence that supernovae are the progenitors of some GRBs. However, this burst was unusually dim, smooth and soft compared to other bursts with known afterglows. Whether it should be considered a prototype for cosmological GRBs depends largely on whether the supernova explosion and burst were asymmetrical or can be modeled as spherical. We address this question by treating the acceleration of the supernova shock in the outermost layers of the stellar envelope, the transition to relativistic flow, and the subsequent expansion (and further acceleration) of the ejecta into the surrounding medium. We find that GRB 980425 could plausibly have been produced by a collision between the relativistic ejecta from SN 1998bw and the star's pre-supernova wind; the model requires no significant asymmetry. This event therefore belongs to a dim subclass of GRBs and is not a prototype for jet-like cosmological GRBs.

astro-ph↗

arXiv2001

The Trans-Relativistic Blast Wave Model for SN 1998bw and GRB 980425

The spatiotemporal coincidence of supernova (SN) 1998bw and gamma-ray burst (GRB) 980425 and this supernova's unusual optical and radio properties have prompted many theoretical models that produce GRBs from supernovae. We review the salient features of our simple, spherical model in which an energetic supernova explosion shock accelerates a small fraction of the progenitor's stellar envelope to mildly relativistic velocities. This material carries sufficient energy to produce a weak GRB and a bright radio supernova through an external shock against a dense stellar wind.

astro-ph↗

arXiv2001

Trans-Relativistic Blast Waves in Supernovae as Gamma-Ray Burst Progenitors

We investigate the acceleration of shock waves to relativistic velocities in the outer layers of exploding stars. By concentrating the explosion energy in the outermost ejecta, such trans-relativistic blast waves can serve as the progenitors of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs); in particular, the ``baryon-loading'' problem that plagues many models of GRBs is circumvented. We present physically motivated and numerically validated analytic expressions to describe trans-relativistic blast waves in supernovae. We find that relativistic ejecta are enhanced in more centrally condensed envelopes, e.g., for radiative envelopes, when the luminosity approaches the Eddington limit. We present convenient formulae for estimating the relativistic ejecta from a given progenitor. We apply our analytic and numerical methods to a model of SN 1998bw, finding significantly enhanced relativistic ejecta compared to previous studies. We propose that GRB 980425 is associated with SN 1998bw and may have resulted from an approximately spherical explosion producing ~10^-6 M_sun of mildly relativistic ejecta with mean Lorentz factor ~2, which then interacted with a dense circumstellar wind with mass loss rate ~few x 10^-4 M_sun/yr. A highly asymmetric explosion is not required. An extreme model of ``hypernova'' explosions in massive stars is able to account for the energetics and relativistic ejecta velocities required by many of the observed cosmological GRBs. We present simplified models of explosions resulting from accretion-induced collapse of white dwarfs and phase transitions of neutron stars. While we find increased energies in relativistic ejecta compared to previous studies, these explosions are unlikely to be observed at cosmological distances with current detectors. (abridged)

astro-ph↗

arXiv2001

Young Supernova Remnants: Issues and Prospects

After reviewing recent work on the dynamics of young supernova remnants (YSNRs) and discussing how YSNRs can be used as physics laboratories, I discuss several challenges: Where are the very young SNRs in the Galaxy? Can very young SNRs produce gamma ray bursts? The Connections Challenge: Can one infer the nature of the supernova and its progenitor star from observations of the YSNR?

astro-ph↗

arXiv2000

The Genesis of Super Star Clusters as Self-Gravitating HII Regions

We examine the effects of ionization, radiation pressure and main sequence winds from massive stars on self-gravitating, clumpy molecular clouds, thereby modeling the formation and pre-supernova feedback of massive star clusters. We find the process of ``turbulent mass loading'' is effective in confining HII regions. Extrapolating typical Galactic high-mass star forming regions to greater initial gas cloud masses and assuming steady star formation rates, we determine the timescales for cloud disruption. We find that a dense n_c ~ 2 x 10^5 cm^-3 cloud with initial mass M_c ~ 4 x 10^5 M_sun is able to form ~2 x 10^5 M_sun of stars (50% efficiency) before feedback disperses the gas after ~3 Myr. This mass and age are typical of young, optically visible super star clusters (SSCs). The high efficiency permits the creation of a bound stellar system.

astro-ph↗

arXiv2000

Polytropes: Implications for Molecular Clouds and Dark Matter

Polytropic models are reasonably successful in acounting for the observed features of molecular clouds. Multi-pressure polytropes include the various pressure components that are important in molecular clouds, whereas composite polytropes provide a representation for the core halo structure. Small, very dense (n~10^{11} cm^{-3}) molecular clouds have been proposed as models for both dark matter and for extreme scattering events. Insofar as the equation of state in these clouds can be represented by a single polytropic relation (pressure varies as a power of the density), such models conflict with observation. It is possible to contrive composite polytropes that do not conflict with observation, but whether the thermal properties of the clouds are consistent with such structure remains to be determined.

astro-ph↗

arXiv2000

Efficiencies of Low-Mass Star and Star Cluster Formation

Using a quantitative model for bipolar outflows driven by hydromagnetic protostellar winds, we calculate the efficiency of star formation assuming that available gas is either converted into stars or ejected in outflows. We estimate the efficiency of a single star formation event in a protostellar core, finding 25%-70% for cores with various possible degrees of flattening. The core mass function and the stellar initial mass function have similar slopes, because the efficiency is not sensitive to its parameters. We then consider the disruption of gas from a dense molecular clump in which a cluster of young stars is being born. In both cases, we present analytical formulae for the efficiencies that compare favorably against observations and, for clusters, against numerical simulations. We predict efficiencies in the range 30%-50% for the regions that form clusters of low-mass stars. In our model, star formation and gas dispersal happen concurrently. We neglect the destructive effects of massive stars: our results are therefore upper limits to the efficiency in regions more massive than about 3000 Msun.

astro-ph↗

arXiv2000

Photoionization of Galactic Halo Gas by Old Supernova Remnants

We present new calculations on the contribution from cooling hot gas to the photoionization of warm ionized gas in the Galaxy. We show that hot gas in cooling supernova remnants (SNRs) is an important source of photoionization, particularly for gas in the halo. We find that in many regions at high latitude this source is adequate to account for the observed ionization so there is no need to find ways to transport stellar photons from the disk. The flux from cooling SNRs sets a floor on the ionization along any line of sight. Our model flux is also shown to be consistent with the diffuse soft X-ray background and with soft X-ray observations of external galaxies. We consider the ionization of the clouds observed towards the halo star HD 93521, for which there are no O stars close to the line of sight. We show that the observed ionization can be explained successfully by our model EUV/soft X-ray flux from cooling hot gas. In particular, we can match the H alpha intensity, the S++/S+ ratio, and the C+* column. From observations of the ratios of columns of C+* and either S+ or H0, we are able to estimate the thermal pressure in the clouds. The slow clouds require high (~10^4 cm^-3 K) thermal pressures to match the N(C+*)/N(S+) ratio. Additional heating sources are required for the slow clouds to maintain their ~7000 K temperatures at these pressures, as found by Reynolds, Hausen & Tufte (1999).

astro-ph↗

arXiv1999

Bipolar molecular outflows driven by hydromagnetic protostellar winds

We demonstrate that magnetically-collimated protostellar winds will sweep ambient material into thin, radiative, momentum-conserving shells whose features reproduce those commonly observed in bipolar molecular outflows. We find the typical position-velocity and mass-velocity relations to occur in outflows in a wide variety of ambient density distributions, regardless of the time histories of their driving winds.

astro-ph↗

arXiv1999

Composite Polytrope Models of Molecular Clouds. I. Theory

We construct spherical, hydrostatic models of dense molecular cores and Bok globules consisting of two distinct, spatially separate gas components: a central, isothermal region surrounded by a negative-index, polytropic envelope. The clouds are supported against their own self-gravity by a combination of thermal, mean magnetic, and turbulent wave pressure. The latter two are included by allowing for locally adiabatic, non-isentropic pressure components. Such models are meant to represent, in a schematic manner, the velocity and density structure of cores and globules, as inferred from molecular line and dust continuum observations. We show by explicit construction that it is possible to have dense cores comparable to the Jeans mass embedded in stable clouds of much larger mass. In a subsequent paper, we show that composite polytropes on the verge of gravitational instability can reproduce the observed velocity and density structure of cores and globules under a variety of physical conditions.

astro-ph↗

arXiv1999

Multi--Pressure Polytropes as Models for the Structure and Stability of Molecular Clouds. I. Theory

Molecular clouds are supported by thermal pressure, magnetic pressure, and turbulent pressure. Each of these can be modeled with a polytropic equation of state, so that overall the total pressure is the sum of the individual components. We model the turbulent pressure as being due to a superposition of Alfven waves. The theory of polytropes is generalized to allow for the flow of entropy in response to a perturbation, as expected for the entropy associated with wave pressure. The equation of state of molecular clouds is "soft", so that the properties of the clouds are generally governed by the conditions at the surface. In general, the polytropes are not isentropic, and this permits large density and pressure drops to occur between the center and the edge of the polytropes, as is observed.

astro-ph↗

arXiv1999

The Structure and Evolution of Molecular Clouds: from Clumps to Cores to the IMF

We review the progress that has been made in observing and analyzing molecular cloud structure in recent years. Structures are self-similar over a wide range of scales with similar power law indices independent of the star forming nature of a cloud. Comparison of structures at parsec-scale resolution in a star forming and non-star forming cloud show that the average densities in the former are higher but the structural characteristics in each cloud are much the same. In gravitationally bound regions of a cloud, however, and at higher densities and resolution, the self-similar scaling relationships break down and it is possible to observe the first steps toward star formation. High resolution observations of the dense individual star forming cores within the clumps hold the key to an empirical understanding of the origins of the stellar initial mass function.

astro-ph↗

arXiv1999

The Dynamical Structure and Evolution of Giant Molecular Clouds

Giant molecular clouds (GMCs) are the sites of star formation in the Galaxy. Many of their properties can be understood in terms of a model in which the GMCs and the star-forming clumps within them are in approximate pressure equilibrium, with turbulent motions treated as a separate pressure component.

astro-ph↗

arXiv1998

The Expulsion of Stellar Envelopes in Core-Collapse Supernovae

We examine the relation between presupernova stellar structure and the distribution of ejecta in core-collapse supernovae, assuming adiabatic, spherically symmetric flow. We develop a simple yet accurate formula for the blastwave shock velocity, and demonstrate that the entire final density distribution can be approximated with simple models for the final pressure distribution, along with the approximate shock-deposited entropy, in a way that matches the results of simulations. We find that the distribution of density in a star's ejecta depends on whether its outer envelope is radiative or convective, and if convective, on the composition structure of the star; simple approximate forms are presented for red and blue supergiant ejecta. Our models are most accurate for the high-velocity ejecta from the periphery of a star, where the shock dynamics are predictable. We present formulae for the final density distribution of this material, for both radiative and efficiently convective envelopes. These formulae limit to the well-known planar, self-similar solutions for mass shells approaching the stellar surface. But, the assumption of adiabatic flow fails at low optical depth, so this planar limit need not be attained. Formulae are given for the observable properties of the X-ray burst accompanying shock emergence, and their dependence on the parameters of the explosion. Motivated by the relativistic expansion recently inferred by Kulkarni et al. (1998) for the synchrotron shell around SN1998bw, we estimate the criterion for relativistic mass ejection and the rest mass of relativistic ejecta.

astro-ph↗

arXiv1998

Gravitational Collapse and Fragmentation in Molecular Clouds with Adaptive Mesh Refinement

We describe a powerful methodology for numerical solution of 3-D self-gravitational hydrodynamics problems with extremely high resolution. Our method utilizes the technique of local adaptive mesh refinement (AMR), employing multiple grids at multiple levels of resolution. These grids are automatically and dynamically added and removed as necessary to maintain adequate resolution. This technology allows for the solution of problems in a manner that is both more efficient and more versatile than other fixed and variable resolution methods. The application of AMR to simulate the collapse and fragmentation of a molecular cloud, a key step in star formation, is discussed. Such simulations involve many orders of magnitude of variation in length scale as fragments form. In this paper we briefly describe the methodology and present an illustrative application for nonisothermal cloud collapse. We describe the numerical Jeans condition, a criterion for stability of self-gravitational hydrodynamics problems. We show the first well-resolved nonisothermal evolutionary sequence beginning with a perturbed dense molecular cloud core that leads to the formation of a binary system consisting of protostellar cores surrounded by distinct protostellar disks. The scale of the disks, of order 100 AU, is consistent with observations of gaseous disks surrounding single T-Tauri stars and debris disks surrounding systems such as $β$ Pictoris.

astro-ph↗

arXiv1997

Doppler-Shift Asymmetry in High-Velocity Maser Emission from Shocks in Circumnuclear Disks

SHORT VERSION: The rapidly rotating, masing circumnuclear disk in the central sub-parsec region of the galaxy NGC 4258 is remarkably circular and Keplerian, yet a striking asymmetry appears in the maser spectrum: the red-shifted, high- velocity sources are much more numerous and significantly more intense than the blue-shifted ones. A similar strong asymmetry appears also in the recently discovered, masing, circumnuclear disks in NGC 1068 and NGC 4945, thus suggesting it may be a general phenomenon. We show that the observed Doppler-shift asymmetry can naturally arise due to spiral shocks in circumnuclear disks, independent of the existence of a warp in the disk or the azimuthal direction to the observer. The high velocities of these features reflect the rotational velocities in the disk, and have nothing to do with the shock speed. In NGC 4258 - the currently most well-defined masing disk - the proposed scenario can also account for the intriguing clustering of the high-velocity maser spots in distinct clumps, the restricted spatial distribution of the low-velocity sources, and the dip in the maser spectrum at the systemic velocity of the disk. In this case we infer a disk mass of ~10E4 M_sun and a mass accretion rate of order ~7E-3 M_sun/year, which may be consistent with an advection-dominated accretion flow. The model is consistent with the observed Keplerian rotation, and introduces only negligible corrections to the previously derived black hole mass and galaxy distance. Predictions include slow systematic drifts in the velocity and position of all the high-velocity features, and the existence of circumnuclear disks which are delineated only by high-velocity maser emission.

astro-ph↗