arXiv subjects

Christopher M. Irwin

Publications and source records attributed to Christopher M. Irwin.

13 recordsLinked to original sources

arXiv2026

Luminous Red Novae as shock-powered transients I: Electron-scattering wings and deviations from Case B

Luminous red novae (LRNe) are a class of optical transients resulting from the mergers of binary stars or common envelope events. The population displays heterogeneous light curves with extended luminosity plateaus and/or secondary peaks, suggested to be powered by hydrogen recombination or shocks between pre- and post-merger ejecta. However, much of their spectroscopic behaviour remains unexplained. Using a sample of six LRNe, we identify telltale spectral evidence for shock processes across the LRNe luminosity range ($10^{38}$-$10^{41}\,\mathrm{erg/s}$): (i) fast ejecta sweeping up slower upstream material; (ii) composite epochs with two distinct components, namely a cool stellar-like continuum underneath a hot nebular recombination region; and (iii) extremely broad line wings extending to $1000$-$10\,000\,\mathrm{km/s}$. Such line profiles reveal photons scattering off hot electrons in an outflow ($T_e\sim5000$-$10\,000 \,\mathrm{K},\,v_{es}\!\sim\!300$-$500\, \mathrm{km/s}$), with recombination seen from both the upstream and downstream of the shock surface. Additionally, constraints on the density of the upstream medium are obtained from recombination-line ratios, where brighter LRNe show deviations from Case B, consistent with denser surrounding environments. Given the outflow's velocity and surrounding density constraints, the shock luminosity is sufficient to account for the total energetics of LRNe without requiring other energy-injection mechanisms. During the plateau phase, the scattering wings are hidden and line ratios are affected by radiative transport effects, which highlights the utility of post-plateau phase spectroscopy.

astro-ph.SR↗

arXiv2026

EP260321a/SN 2026gzf: The Faintest Shock Breakout Associated with a Broad-Lined Supernova

The explosion of a star is first marked by the shock wave breaking out of the stellar surface, producing a burst of ultraviolet and X-ray radiation. These events are observationally rare, despite likely accompanying the majority of supernovae. Here, we report on our multi-wavelength observing campaign of the closest Einstein Probe fast X-ray transient EP260321a at $z=0.0344$. The thermal ($kT=130$ eV) X-ray emission with peak luminosity $1.0\times10^{45}$ erg s$^{-1}$ points to a shock breakout origin. We demonstrate that EP260321a is accompanied by a broad-lined Type Ic supernova, SN 2026gzf. The supernova properties, including its spectral evolution, lightcurve evolution, and expansion velocities, are all typical of the energetic stripped-envelope supernovae associated with gamma-ray bursts. However, deep X-ray upper limits obtained with the \textit{Chandra X-ray Observatory} do not detect an X-ray afterglow, and instead exclude the afterglow of known gamma-ray bursts or fast X-ray transients. If the stellar explosion launched a successful relativistic jet, we require that it had both a low Lorentz factor $Γ_0$\,$<$\,$30$ and a kinetic energy $E_\textrm{kin}$\,$<$\,$10^{49}$ erg for a stellar wind density of $A_*$\,$\gtrsim$\,$1$. We propose that EP260321a originated from a mildly relativistic, weak outflow that was choked by the progenitor star. This scenario is capable of naturally explaining its low X-ray luminosity and lack of prompt gamma-ray emission. EP260321a bridges the gap between SN 2008D and low-luminosity GRBs, suggesting a greater diversity in the physical parameters of stripped stars as they undergo terminal collapse.

astro-ph.HE↗

arXiv2025

Black Hole Envelopes in Little Red Dots

Recent observations by the James Webb Space Telescope have uncovered a population of compact, red object ($z\sim 4\text{--}7$) known as little red dots (LRDs). The presence of broad Balmer emission lines indicates active galactic nuclei powered by supermassive black holes (BHs), while LRDs exhibit unusually weak X-ray and radio emission and low variability, suggesting super-Eddington accretion that obscures the central engine. We suggest that such an extreme accretion disc inevitably drives strong outflows, which would disrupt the LRDs themselves unless confined within the nuclear region -- posing a general feedback problem for overmassive BHs. To resolve this, we propose that the BH is embedded in a massive, optically thick envelope that gravitationally confines the outflow, making any outflow a no-go. This envelope, powered by accretion on to the BH, radiates at nearly the Eddington limit, and is sustained by an infall of the interstellar medium at a rate on the order of $\sim 1 M_{\odot}~{\rm yr}^{-1}$. A photosphere emerges either within the envelope or in the infalling medium, with a characteristic temperature of $5000$ - $7000 {\rm K}$, near the Hayashi limit. The resulting blackbody emission naturally explains the red optical continuum of the distinct V-shaped spectrum observed in most LRDs. Furthermore, the dynamical time-scale at the photosphere, $\sim 0.01~{\rm pc}$, is consistent with the observed year-scale variabilities. The nuclear structure and spectral features of LRDs are shaped by this envelope, which not only regulates feedback but also acts as a gas reservoir that sustains rapid BH growth in the early universe.

astro-ph.HE↗

arXiv2024

Demystifying shock breakout spectra

The spectrum of the first supernova light (i.e., the shock breakout and early cooling emission) is an important diagnostic for the state of the progenitor star just before explosion. We consider a streamlined model describing the emergent shock breakout spectrum, which enables a straightforward classification of the possible observed spectra during the early planar phase. The overall spectral evolution is determined by a competition between three important time-scales: the diffusion time $t_{\rm{bo}}$ of the shell producing the breakout emission, the light-crossing time of this shell $t_{\rm{lc}}$, and the time $t_{\rm{eq}}$ at which the observer starts to see layers of the ejecta where the gas and radiation are in thermal equilibrium. There are five allowed orderings of these time-scales, resulting in five possible scenarios with distinct spectral behaviours. Within each scenario, the spectrum at a given time is one of five possible types, which are approximately described by broken power-laws; we provide the spectral and temporal indices of each power-law segment, and the time evolution of the break frequencies. If high-cadence multi-wavelength observations can determine the relevant breakout scenario in future events, strong constraints can be placed on the physical conditions at the site of shock breakout.

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arXiv2024

Revisiting GRB 060218: new insights into low-luminosity gamma-ray bursts from a revised shock breakout model

Despite two decades since the discovery of low-luminosity gamma-ray bursts, their origin remains poorly understood. In events such as GRB 060218, shock breakout from a progenitor with an extended ($10^{13}$ - $10^{14}$ cm), low-mass (0.01 - 0.1 M$_\odot$) envelope provides one possible interpretation for the smooth prompt X-ray emission lasting $\sim 1000$ s and the early optical peak at $\sim 0.5$ d. However, current shock breakout models have difficulties explaining the unexpectedly strong optical emission at $\sim 100$ s, the simultaneous presence of blackbody and power-law components in the X-ray spectrum, and the rapid evolution of the peak energy. We suggest that these peculiar features can be explained by a recently realized shock breakout scenario, in which the gas and the radiation are initially out of thermal equilibrium, but they achieve equilibrium on a time-scale faster than the light-crossing time of the envelope. In this non-standard case, due to the effects of light travel time, the observed X-ray spectrum is a multi-temperature blend of blackbody and free-free components. The free-free emission is spectrally broad, peaking in hard X-rays while also enhancing the early optical signal. As the system thermalizes, the free-free component quickly evolves toward lower energies, reproducing the observed rapid peak energy decay. To match observations, we find that more than $10^{50}$ erg must be deposited in the envelope, which may be accomplished by a choked jet. These results strengthen the case for a shock breakout origin of $ll$GRBs, and provide further evidence connecting $ll$GRBs to peculiar progenitors with extended low-mass envelopes.

astro-ph.HE↗

arXiv2024

An unexplored regime of shock breakout with a distinct spectral signature

The first light that escapes from a supernova explosion is the shock breakout emission, which produces a bright flash of UV or X-ray radiation. Standard theory predicts that the shock breakout spectrum will be a blackbody if the gas and radiation are in thermal equilibrium, or a Comptonized free-free spectrum if not. Using recent results for the post-breakout evolution which suggest that lower-temperature ejecta are probed earlier than previously thought, we show that another scenario is possible in which the gas and radiation are initially out of equilibrium, but the time when thermalized ejecta are revealed is short compared to the light-crossing time of the system. In this case, the observed spectrum differs significantly from the standard expectation, as the non-negligible light travel time acts to smear the spectrum into a complex multi-temperature blend of blackbody and free-free components. For typical parameters, a bright multi-wavelength transient is produced, with the free-free emission being spread over a wide frequency range from optical to hard X-rays, and the blackbody component peaking in soft X-rays. We explore the necessary conditions to obtain this type of unusual spectrum, finding that it may be relevant for bare blue supergiant progenitors, or for shocks with a velocity of $v_{\rm bo} \sim 0.1c$ breaking out from an extended medium of radius $R_{\rm env}$ with a sufficiently high density $ρ_{\rm bo} \gtrsim 4\times 10^{-12}\text{ g cm}^{-3} (R_{\rm env}/10^{14} \text{cm})^{-15/16}$. An application to low-luminosity gamma-ray bursts is considered in a companion paper.

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arXiv2024

Dynamical properties of mildly relativistic ejecta produced by the mass-loading of gamma-ray burst jets in dense ambient media

We present the results of a series of 3D special relativistic hydrodynamic simulations of a gamma-ray burst (GRB) jet in a massive circumstellar medium (CSM) surrounding the progenitor star. Our simulations reproduce the jet morphology transitioning from a well-collimated state to a thermal pressure-driven state for a range of CSM masses and outer radii. The jet-CSM interaction redistributes the jet energy to materials expanding into a wide solid angle and results in a quasi-spherical ejecta with 4-velocities from $Γβ\simeq 0.1$ to $\simeq 10$. The mass and kinetic energy of the ejecta with velocities faster than $0.1c$ are typically of the order of $0.1\,M_\odot$ and $10^{51}\,\mathrm{erg}$ with only a weak dependence on the CSM mass and radius for the explored CSM parameter ranges. We find that the numerically obtained density structure of the mildly relativistic ejecta is remarkably universal. The radial density profile is well approximated as a power-law function of the radial velocity with an index of $-5$, $ρ\propto v^{-5}$, in agreement with our previous simulations and other studies, as well as those suggested from recent studies on early-phase spectra of supernovae associated with GRBs. Such fast ejecta rapidly becomes transparent following its expansion. Gradually releasing the trapped thermal photons, the ejecta gives rise to bright UV--optical emission within $\sim 1$ day. We discuss the potential link of the relativistic ejecta resulting from jet-CSM interaction to GRB-associated supernovae as well as fast and blue optical transients.

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arXiv2019

Jet-driven bubbles in Fanaroff-Riley type I sources

Observations of several Fanaroff-Riley (FR) type I sources reveal outflowing bipolar bubbles of hot gas surrounded by a weak forward shock. We consider the possibility that these bubbles were driven by choked relativistic jets which failed to penetrate the ambient intracluster medium (ICM). Using new results on choked jets linking the geometry of the forward shock to the jet properties, we infer robust limits on the radius $R_{ch}$ at which the jet was quenched in 5 well-studied FRI sources, finding typically $R_{ch}\sim 10$ kpc. We further show that, in order to reach this radius in less than the current age of the system, the jet must have been tightly collimated, with the jet head subtending an angle of $θ_h < 2^\circ$. The ambient pressure is not high enough to explain this collimation, suggesting that the jet was collimated by interaction with its own cocoon. Although the choking radius is well-constrained, we find a degeneracy between the initial jet opening angle before collimation, $θ_0$, and the duration of jet activity, $t_b$, with $(t_b/1\rm{Myr})(θ_0/5^\circ)^{-2} \sim 0.1$. We speculate that the working time and/or opening angle of the jet may be important factors contributing to the FR type I/type II morphology in galaxy clusters, with short-lived or wide jets being choked to form bipolar bubbles filled with diffuse radio emission, and longer-lived or narrow jets successfully escaping the cluster core to produce cocoons with radio hotspots.

astro-ph.HE↗

arXiv2019

The propagation of choked jet outflows in power-law external media

Observations of both gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) and active galactic nuclei (AGNs) point to the idea that some relativistic jets are suffocated by their environment before we observe them. In these "choked" jets, all the jet's kinetic energy is transferred into a hot and narrow cocoon of near-uniform pressure. We consider the evolution of an elongated, axisymmetric cocoon formed by a choked jet as it expands into a cold power-law ambient medium $ρ\propto R^{-α}$, in the case where the shock is decelerating ($α<3$). The evolution proceeds in three stages, with two breaks in behaviour: the first occurs once the outflow has doubled its initial width, and the second once it has doubled its initial height. Using the Kompaneets approximation, we derive analytical formulae for the shape of the cocoon shock, and obtain approximate expressions for the height and width of the outflow versus time in each of the three dynamical regimes. The asymptotic behaviour is different for flat ($α\le 2$) and steep ($2 < α< 3$) density profiles. Comparing the analytical model to numerical simulations, we find agreement to within $\sim15$ per cent out to 45 degrees from the axis, but discrepancies of a factor of 2-3 near the equator. The shape of the cocoon shock can be measured directly in AGNs, and is also expected to affect the early light from failed GRB jets. Observational constraints on the shock geometry provide a useful diagnostic of the jet properties, even long after jet activity ceases.

astro-ph.HE↗

arXiv2012

Radio and X-ray observations of SN 2006jd: Another strongly interacting Type IIn supernova

We report four years of radio and X-ray monitoring of the Type IIn supernova SN 2006jd at radio wavelengths with the Very Large Array, Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope and Expanded Very Large Array; at X-ray wavelengths with {\em Chandra}, {\em XMM-Newton} and {\em Swift}-XRT. We assume that the radio and X-ray emitting particles are produced by shock interaction with a dense circumstellar medium. The radio emission shows an initial rise that can be attributed to free-free absorption by cool gas mixed into the nonthermal emitting region; external free-free absorption is disfavored because of the shape of the rising light curves and the low gas column density inferred along the line of sight to the emission region. The X-ray luminosity implies a preshock circumstellar density $\sim 10^6$ cm$^{-3}$ at a radius $r\sim 2\times 10^{16}$ cm, but the column density inferred from the photoabsorption of X-rays along the line of sight suggests a significantly lower density. The implication may be an asymmetry in the interaction. The X-ray spectrum shows Fe line emission at 6.9 keV that is stronger than is expected for the conditions in the X-ray emitting gas. We suggest that cool gas mixed into the hot gas plays a role in the line emission. Our radio and X-ray data both suggest the density profile is flatter than $r^{-2}$ because of the slow evolution of the unabsorbed emission.

astro-ph.HE↗

arXiv2012

Strong Evolution of X-Ray Absorption in the Type IIn Supernova SN 2010jl

We report two epochs of Chandra-ACIS X-ray imaging spectroscopy of the nearby bright Type IIn supernova SN 2010jl, taken around 2 months and then a year after the explosion. The majority of the X-ray emission in both the spectra is characterized by a high temperature ($\ga 10$ keV) and is likely to be from the forward shocked region resulting from circumstellar interaction. The absorption column density in the first spectrum is high, ~ 10^{24} cm^{-2}, more than 3 orders of magnitude higher than the Galactic absorption column, and we attribute it to absorption by circumstellar matter. In the second epoch observation, the column density has decreased by a factor of 3, as expected for shock propagation in the circumstellar medium. The unabsorbed 0.2-10 keV luminosity at both epochs is ~7 x 10^{41} erg/s. The 6.4 keV Fe line clearly present in the first spectrum is not detected in the second spectrum. The strength of the fluorescent line is roughly that expected for the column density of circumstellar gas, provided the Fe is not highly ionized. There is also evidence for an absorbed power law component in both the spectra, which we attribute to a background ultraluminous X-ray source.

astro-ph.HE↗

arXiv2012

X-Rays from Supernova Shocks in Dense Mass Loss

Type IIn and related supernovae show evidence for an interaction with a dense circumstellar medium that produces most of the supernova luminosity. X-ray emission from shock heated gas is crucial for the energetics of the interaction and can provide diagnostics on the shock interaction. Provided that the shock is at an optical depth tau_w\la c/v_s in the wind, where c is the speed of light and v_s is the shock velocity, a viscous shock is expected that heats the gas to a high temperature. For tau_w\ga 1, the shock wave is in the cooling regime; inverse Compton cooling dominates bremsstrahlung at higher densities and shock velocities. Although tau_w\ga 1, the optical depth through the emission zone is \la 1 so that inverse Compton effects do not give rise to significant X-ray emission. The electrons may not reach energy equipartition with the protons at higher shock velocities. As X-rays move out through the cool wind, the higher energy photons are lost to Compton degradation. If bremsstrahlung dominates the cooling and Compton losses are small, the energetic radiation can completely photoionize the preshock gas. However, inverse Compton cooling in the hot region and Compton degradation in the wind reduce the ionizing flux, so that complete photoionization is not obtained and photoabsorption by the wind further reduces the escaping X-ray flux. We conjecture that the combination of these effects led to the low observed X-ray flux from the optically luminous SN 2006gy.

astro-ph.HE↗

arXiv2011

Shock Breakout in Dense Mass Loss: Luminous Supernovae

We examine the case where a circumstellar medium around a supernova is sufficiently opaque that a radiation dominated shock propagates in the circumstellar region. The initial propagation of the shock front into the circumstellar region can be approximated by a self-similar solution that determines the radiative energy in a shocked shell; the eventual escape of this energy gives the maximum luminosity of the supernova. If the circumstellar density is described by ρ=Dr^{-2} out to a radius R_w, where D is a constant, the properties of the shock breakout radiation depend on R_w and R_d\equivκDv_{sh}/c, where κis the opacity and v_{sh} is the shock velocity. If R_w>R_d, the rise to maximum light begins at ~ R_d/v_{sh}; the duration of the rise is also ~ R_d/v_{sh}; the outer parts of the opaque medium are extended and at low velocity at the time of peak luminosity; and a dense shell forms whose continued interaction with the dense mass loss gives a characteristic flatter portion of the declining light curve. If R_w<R_d, the rise to maximum light begins at R_w/v_{sh}; the duration of the rise is R_w^2/v_{sh}R_d; the outer parts of the opaque medium are not extended and are accelerated to high velocity by radiation pressure at the time of maximum luminosity; and a dense shell forms but does not affect the light curve near maximum. We argue that SN 2006gy is an example of the first kind of event, while SN 2010gx and related supernovae are examples of the second.

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