arXiv subjects

D. Khangulyan

Publications and source records attributed to D. Khangulyan.

At least 55 records · Page 3Linked to original sources

arXiv2017

Advanced search for the extension of unresolved TeV sources with H.E.S.S.: First measurement of the extension of the Crab nebula at TeV energies

The resolution power of current Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov Telescopes is presently restricted to scales of a few arcminutes. In the very high-energy (VHE; E > 100 GeV) gamma-ray regime, the measurement of source sizes that are comparable to or smaller than the resolution of the instrument is usually limited by statistics and in particular by the uncertainties in the characterisation of the instrument Point Spread Function (PSF). The PSF varies strongly with observation and instrument conditions, demanding time-dependent simulations of these conditions. Employing such simulations, we substantially improve our understanding of the H.E.S.S. PSF and are now able to probe source extensions well below one arcminute scale. We present the results of this new approach applied to known VHE gamma-ray sources and show how this enables us to reveal for the first time the extension of the Crab nebula at TeV gamma-ray energies, with a width of 52 arcsec assuming a Gaussian source shape.

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arXiv2017

Scenarios for ultrafast gamma-ray variability in AGN

We analyze three scenarios to address the challenge of ultrafast gamma-ray variability reported from active galactic nuclei. We focus on the energy requirements imposed by these scenarios: (i) external cloud in the jet, (ii) relativistic blob propagating through the jet material, and (iii) production of high-energy gamma rays in the magnetosphere gaps. We show that while the first two scenarios are not constrained by the flare luminosity, there is a robust upper limit on the luminosity of flares generated in the black hole magnetosphere. This limit depends weakly on the mass of the central black hole and is determined by the accretion disk magnetization, viewing angle, and the pair multiplicity. For the most favorable values of these parameters, the luminosity for 5-minute flares is limited by $2\times10^{43}\rm\,erg\,s^{-1}$, which excludes a black hole magnetosphere origin of the flare detected from IC310. In the scopes of scenarios (i) and (ii), the jet power, which is required to explain the IC310 flare, exceeds the jet power estimated based on the radio data. To resolve this discrepancy in the framework of the scenario (ii), it is sufficient to assume that the relativistic blobs are not distributed isotropically in the jet reference frame. A realization of scenario (i) demands that the jet power during the flare exceeds by a factor $10^2$ the power of the radio jet relevant to a timescale of $10^8$ years.

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arXiv2017

Gamma rays from clumpy wind-jet interactions in high-mass microquasars

The stellar winds of the massive stars in high-mass microquasars are thought to be inhomogeneous. The interaction of these inhomogeneities, or clumps, with the jets of these objects may be a major factor in gamma-ray production. Our goal is to characterize a typical scenario of clump-jet interaction, and calculate the contribution of these interactions to the gamma-ray emission from these systems. We use axisymmetric, RHD simulations to model the emitting flow in a typical clump-jet interaction. Using the simulation results we perform a numerical calculation of the high-energy emission from one of these interactions. The radiative calculations are done for relativistic electrons locally accelerated at the jet shock, and the synchrotron and IC radiation spectra are computed for different stages of the shocked clump evolution. We also explore different parameter values, such as viewing angle and magnetic field strength. We generalize phenomenologically the results derived from one clump-jet interaction to multiple interactions under different wind models, estimating the clump-jet interaction rates, and the resulting luminosities in the GeV range. If particles are efficiently accelerated in clump-jet interactions, the apparent gamma-ray luminosity through IC scattering with the stellar photons can be significant even for rather strong magnetic fields and thus efficient synchrotron cooling. Moreover, despite the standing nature or slow motion of the jet shocks for most of the interaction stage, Doppler boosting in the postshock flow is relevant even for mildly relativistic jets. For clump-to-average wind density contrasts $\gtrsim 10$, clump-jet interactions could be bright enough to match the observed GeV luminosity in Cyg~X-1 and Cyg~X-3 when a jet is present in these sources, with required non-thermal-to-total available power fractions $\sim 0.01$ and $0.1$, respectively.

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arXiv2014

ASTRO-H White Paper - Accreting Pulsars, Magnetars, and Related Sources

As the endpoints of massive star evolution, neutron stars are enigmatic celestial objects characterized by extremely dense and exotic nuclear matter, magnetospheres with positrons (antimatter), rapid rotation and ultra-strong magnetic fields. Such an extreme environment has provided an accessible astrophysical laboratory to study physics under conditions unattainable on Earth and to tackle a range of fundamental questions related to: the aftermath of stellar evolution and the powerful explosions of massive stars, the equation of state and physics of some of the most exotic and magnetic stars in the Universe, the workings of the most powerful particle accelerators in our Galaxy and beyond, and the sources of gravitational waves that are yet to be detected. Recent observations revealed a great diversity of neutron stars, including ultra-strongly magnetized pulsars, referred to as "magnetars", and unusual types of accreting X-ray pulsars. In this white paper, we highlight the prospects of the upcoming X-ray mission, ASTRO-H, in studying these highly magnetized neutron stars.

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arXiv2014

ASTRO-H White Paper - Shock and Acceleration

We discuss the prospects for a progress to be brought by ASTRO-H in the understanding of the physics of particle acceleration in astrophysical environments. Particular emphasis will be put on the synergy with gamma-ray astronomy, in the context of the rapid developments of recent years. Selected topics include: shock acceleration in supernova remnants (SNRs) and in clusters of galaxies, and the extreme particle acceleration seen in gamma-ray binaries. Since the hydrodynamics and thermal properties of shocks in these objects are covered in other white papers, we focus on the aspects related to the process of particle acceleration. In the case of SNRs, we emphasize the importance of SXS and HXI observations of the X-ray emission of young SNRs dominated by synchrotron radiation, particularly SNR RX J1713.7-3946. We argue that the HXI observations of young SNRs, as a byproduct of SXS observations dedicated for studies of the shock dynamics and nucleosynthesis, will provide powerful constraints on shock acceleration theories. Also, we discuss gamma-ray binary systems, where extreme particle acceleration is inferred regardless of the nature (a neutron star or a black hole) of the compact object. Finally, for galaxy clusters, we propose searches for hard X-ray emission of secondary electrons from interactions of ultra-high energy cosmic rays accelerated at accretion shocks. This should allow us to understand the contribution of galaxy clusters to the flux of cosmic rays above 10^18 eV.

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arXiv2013

Search for Dark Matter Annihilation Signals from the Fornax Galaxy Cluster with H.E.S.S

The Fornax galaxy cluster was observed with the High Energy Stereoscopic System (H.E.S.S.) for a total live time of 14.5 hours, searching for very-high-energy (VHE, E>100 GeV) gamma-rays from dark matter (DM) annihilation. No significant signal was found in searches for point-like and extended emissions. Using several models of the DM density distribution, upper limits on the DM velocity-weighted annihilation cross-section as a function of the DM particle mass are derived. Constraints are derived for different DM particle models, such as those arising from Kaluza-Klein and supersymmetric models. Various annihilation final states are considered. Possible enhancements of the DM annihilation gamma-ray flux, due to DM substructures of the DM host halo, or from the Sommerfeld effect, are studied. Additional gamma-ray contributions from internal bremsstrahlung and inverse Compton radiation are also discussed. For a DM particle mass of 1 TeV, the exclusion limits at 95% of confidence level reach values of ~ 10^-23cm^3s^-1, depending on the DM particle model and halo properties. Additional contribution from DM substructures can improve the upper limits on <σv> by more than two orders of magnitude. At masses around 4.5 TeV, the enhancement by substructures and the Sommerfeld resonance effect results in a velocity-weighted annihilation cross-section upper limit at the level of <σv> ~ 10^-26cm^3s^-1.

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arXiv2013

Exploring high-energy processes in binary systems with the Cherenkov Telescope Array

Several types of binary systems have been detected up to now at high and very high gamma-ray energies, including microquasars, young pulsars around massive stars and colliding wind binaries. The study of the sources already known, and of the new types of sources expected to be discovered with the unprecedented sensitivity of CTA, will allow us to qualitatively improve our knowledge on particle acceleration, emission and radiation reprocessing, and on the dynamics of flows and their magnetic fields. Here we present some examples of the capabilities of CTA to probe the flux and spectral changes that typically occur in these astrophysical sources, as well as to search for delays in correlated X-ray/TeV variability with CTA and satellites of the CTA era. Our results show that our knowledge of the high-energy physics in binary systems will significantly deepen with CTA.

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arXiv2012

Binaries with the eyes of CTA

The binary systems that have been detected in gamma rays have proven very useful to study high-energy processes, in particular particle acceleration, emission and radiation reprocessing, and the dynamics of the underlying magnetized flows. Binary systems, either detected or potential gamma-ray emitters, can be grouped in different subclasses depending on the nature of the binary components or the origin of the particle acceleration: the interaction of the winds of either a pulsar and a massive star or two massive stars; accretion onto a compact object and jet formation; and interaction of a relativistic outflow with the external medium. We evaluate the potentialities of an instrument like the Cherenkov telescope array (CTA) to study the non-thermal physics of gamma-ray binaries, which requires the observation of high-energy phenomena at different time and spatial scales. We analyze the capability of CTA, under different configurations, to probe the spectral, temporal and spatial behavior of gamma-ray binaries in the context of the known or expected physics of these sources. CTA will be able to probe with high spectral, temporal and spatial resolution the physical processes behind the gamma-ray emission in binaries, significantly increasing as well the number of known sources. This will allow the derivation of information on the particle acceleration and emission sites qualitatively better than what is currently available.

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arXiv2012

Simulations of stellar/pulsar wind interaction along one full orbit

The winds from a non-accreting pulsar and a massive star in a binary system collide forming a bow-shaped shock structure. The Coriolis force induced by orbital motion deflects the shocked flows, strongly affecting their dynamics. We study the evolution of the shocked stellar and pulsar winds on scales in which the orbital motion is important. Potential sites of non-thermal activity are investigated. Relativistic hydrodynamical simulations in two dimensions, performed with the code PLUTO and using the adaptive mesh refinement technique, are used to model interacting stellar and pulsar winds on scales ~80 times the distance between the stars. The hydrodynamical results suggest the suitable locations of sites for particle acceleration and non-thermal emission. In addition to the shock formed towards the star, the shocked and unshocked components of the pulsar wind flowing away from the star terminate by means of additional strong shocks produced by the orbital motion. Strong instabilities lead to the development of turbulence and an effective two-wind mixing in both the leading and trailing sides of the interaction structure, which starts to merge with itself after one orbit. The adopted moderate pulsar-wind Lorentz factor already provides a good qualitative description of the phenomena involved in high-mass binaries with pulsars, and can capture important physical effects that would not appear in non-relativistic treatments. Simulations show that shocks, instabilities, and mass-loading yield efficient mass, momentum, and energy exchanges between the pulsar and the stellar winds. This renders a rapid increase in the entropy of the shocked structure, which will likely be disrupted on scales beyond the simulated ones. Several sites of particle acceleration and low- and high-energy emission can be identified. Doppler boosting will have significant and complex effects on radiation.

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arXiv2012

Cold ultrarelativistic pulsar winds as potential sources of galactic gamma-ray lines above 100 GeV

The evidence of a line-like spectral feature at 130 GeV recently reported from some parts of the galactic plane poses serious challenges for any interpretation of this surprise discovery. It is generally believed that the unusually narrow profile of the spectral line cannot be explained by conventional processes in astrophysical objects, and, if real, is likely to be associated with Dark Matter. In this paper we argue that cold ultrarelativistic pulsar winds can be alternative sources of very narrow gamma-ray lines. We demonstrate that Comptonization of a cold ultrarelativistic electron-positron pulsar wind in the deep Klein-Nishina regime can readily provide very narrow distinct gamma-ray line features. To verify this prediction, we produced photon count maps based on the Fermi LAT data in the energy interval 100 to 140 GeV. We confirm earlier reports of the presence of marginal gamma-ray line-like signals from three regions of the galactic plane. Although the maps show some structure inside these regions, unfortunately the limited photon statistics do not allow any firm conclusion in this regard. The confirmation of 130 GeV line emission by low-energy threshold atmospheric Cherenkov telescope systems, in particular by the new 27 m diameter dish of the H.E.S.S. array, would be crucial for resolving the spatial structure of the reported hotspots, and thus for distinguishing between the Dark Matter and Pulsar origins of the `Fermi Lines'.

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arXiv2012

Post-Periastron Gamma Ray Flare from PSR B1259-63/LS 2883 as a Result of Comptonization of the Cold Pulsar Wind

We argue that the bright flare of the binary pulsar \object{PSR B1259$-$63/LS2883} detected by the {\it Fermi} Large Area Telescope (LAT), is due to the inverse Compton (IC) scattering of the unshocked electron-positron pulsar wind with a Lorentz factor $Γ_0 \approx 10^4$. The combination of two effects both linked to the circumstellar disk (CD), is a key element in the proposed model. The first effect is related to the impact of the surrounding medium on the termination of the pulsar wind. Inside the disk, the "early" termination of the wind results in suppression of its gamma-ray luminosity. When the pulsar escapes the disk, the conditions for termination of the wind undergo significant changes. This would lead to a dramatic increase of the pulsar wind zone, and thus to the proportional increase of the gamma-ray flux. On the other hand, if the parts of the CD disturbed by the pulsar can supply infrared photons of density high enough for efficient Comptonization of the wind, almost the entire kinetic energy of the pulsar wind would be converted to radiation, thus the gamma-ray luminosity of the wind could approach to the level of the pulsar's spin-down luminosity as reported by the {\it Fermi} collaboration.

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arXiv2012

Discovery of VHE emission towards the Carina arm region with the H.E.S.S. telescope array: HESS J1018-589

The observational coverage with HESS of the Carina region in VHE gamma-rays benefits from deep exposure (40 h) of the neighboring open cluster Westerlund 2. The observations have revealed a new extended region of VHE gamma-ray emission. The new VHE source HESS J1018-589 shows a bright, point-like emission region positionally coincident with SNR G284.3-1.8 and 1FGL J1018.6 - 5856 and a diffuse extension towards the direction of PSR J1016-5857. A soft Gamma=2.7+-0.5 photon index, with a differential flux at 1TeV of N0=(4.2+-1.1)10^-13 TeV^-1 cm^-2 s^-1 is found for the point-like source, whereas the total emission region including the diffuse emission region is well fit by a power-law function with spectral index Gamma=2.9+-0.4 and differential flux at 1TeV of N0=(6.8+-1.6) 10^-13 TeV^-1 cm^-2 s^-1. This H.E.S.S. detection motivated follow-up X-ray observations with the XMM-Newton satellite to investigate the origin of the VHE emission. The analysis of the XMM-Newton data resulted in the discovery of a bright, non-thermal point-like source (XMMU J101855.4-58564) with a photon index of Gamma=1.65+-0.08 in the center of SNRG284.3-1.8, and a thermal, extended emission region coincident with its bright northern filament. The characteristics of this thermal emission are used to estimate the plasma density in the region as n~0.5 cm^-3(2.9kpc/d)^2. The position of XMMUJ101855.4-58564 is compatible with the position reported by the Fermi-LAT collaboration for the binary system 1FGL J1018.6-5856 and the variable Swift XRT source identified with it. The new X-ray data are used alongside archival multi-wavelength data to investigate the relationship between the VHE gamma-ray emission from HESSJ1018-589 and the various potential counterparts in the Carina arm region.

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arXiv2012

The 2010 very high energy gamma-ray flare & 10 years of multi-wavelength observations of M 87

Abridged: The giant radio galaxy M 87 with its proximity, famous jet, and very massive black hole provides a unique opportunity to investigate the origin of very high energy (VHE; E>100 GeV) gamma-ray emission generated in relativistic outflows and the surroundings of super-massive black holes. M 87 has been established as a VHE gamma-ray emitter since 2006. The VHE gamma-ray emission displays strong variability on timescales as short as a day. In this paper, results from a joint VHE monitoring campaign on M 87 by the MAGIC and VERITAS instruments in 2010 are reported. During the campaign, a flare at VHE was detected triggering further observations at VHE (H.E.S.S.), X-rays (Chandra), and radio (43 GHz VLBA). The excellent sampling of the VHE gamma-ray light curve enables one to derive a precise temporal characterization of the flare: the single, isolated flare is well described by a two-sided exponential function with significantly different flux rise and decay times. While the overall variability pattern of the 2010 flare appears somewhat different from that of previous VHE flares in 2005 and 2008, they share very similar timescales (~day), peak fluxes (Phi(>0.35 TeV) ~= (1-3) x 10^-11 ph cm^-2 s^-1), and VHE spectra. 43 GHz VLBA radio observations of the inner jet regions indicate no enhanced flux in 2010 in contrast to observations in 2008, where an increase of the radio flux of the innermost core regions coincided with a VHE flare. On the other hand, Chandra X-ray observations taken ~3 days after the peak of the VHE gamma-ray emission reveal an enhanced flux from the core. The long-term (2001-2010) multi-wavelength light curve of M 87, spanning from radio to VHE and including data from HST, LT, VLA and EVN, is used to further investigate the origin of the VHE gamma-ray emission. No unique, common MWL signature of the three VHE flares has been identified.

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arXiv2012

A multiwavelength view of the flaring state of PKS 2155-304 in 2006

Multiwavelength (MWL) observations of the blazar PKS 2155-304 during two weeks in July and August 2006, the period when two exceptional flares at very high energies (VHE, E>= 100 GeV) occurred, provide a detailed picture of the evolution of its emission. The complete data set from this campaign is presented, including observations in VHE gamma-rays (H.E.S.S.), X-rays (RXTE, CHANDRA, SWIFT XRT), optical (SWIFT UVOT, Bronberg, Watcher, ROTSE), and in the radio band (NRT, HartRAO, ATCA). Optical and radio light curves from 2004 to 2008 are compared to the available VHE data from this period, to put the 2006 campaign into the context of the long-term evolution of the source. The X-ray and VHE gamma-ray emission are correlated during the observed high state of the source, but show no direct connection with longer wavelengths. The long-term flux evolution in the optical and radio bands is found to be correlated and shows that the source reaches a high state at long wavelengths after the occurrence of the VHE flares. Spectral hardening is seen in the SWIFT XRT data. The nightly averaged high-energy spectra of the non-flaring nights can be reproduced by a stationary one-zone SSC model, with only small variations in the parameters. The spectral and flux evolution in the high-energy band during the night of the second VHE flare is modelled with multi-zone SSC models, which can provide relatively simple interpretations for the hour time-scale evolution of the high-energy emission, even for such a complex data set. For the first time in this type of source, a clear indication is found for a relation between high activity at high energies and a long-term increase in the low frequency fluxes.

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arXiv2012

Discovery of hard-spectrum γ-ray emission from the BL Lac object 1ES 0414+009

1ES 0414+009 (z = 0.287) is a distant high-frequency-peaked BL Lac object, and has long been considered a likely emitter of very-high energy (VHE, E>100 GeV) gamma-rays due to its high X-ray and radio flux. Observations in the VHE gamma-ray band and across the electromagnetic spectrum can provide insights into the origin of highly energetic particles present in the source and the radiation processes at work. Because of the distance of the source, the gamma-ray spectrum might provide further limits on the level of the Extragalactic Background Light (EBL). We report observations made between October 2005 and December 2009 with H.E.S.S., an array of four imaging atmospheric Cherenkov telescopes. Observations at high energies (HE, 100 MeV - 100 GeV) with the Fermi-LAT instrument in the first 20 months of its operation are also reported. To complete the multi-wavelength picture, archival UV and X-ray observations with the Swift satellite and optical observations with the ATOM telescope are also used. Based on the observations with H.E.S.S., 1ES 0414+009 is detected for the first time in the VHE band. An excess of 224 events is measured, corresponding to a significance of 7.8 sigma. The photon spectrum of the source is well described by a power law, with photon index of 3.45 \pm 0.25stat \pm 0.20syst. The integral flux above 200 GeV is (1.88 \pm 0.20stat \pm 0.38syst) \times10-12 cm-2 s-1. Observations with the Fermi-LAT in the first 20 months of operation show a flux between 200 MeV and 100 GeV of (2.3 \pm 0.2stat) \times 10-9 erg cm-2 s-1, and a spectrum well described by a power-law function with a photon index 1.85 \pm 0.18. Swift/XRT observations show an X-ray flux between 2 and 10 keV of (0.8 - 1) \times 10-11 erg cm-2 s-1, and a steep spectrum (2.2 - 2.3). Combining X-ray with optical-UV data, a fit with a log-parabolic function locates the synchrotron peak around 0.1 keV. ...

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arXiv2011

Simultaneous multi-wavelength campaign on PKS 2005-489 in a high state

The high-frequency peaked BL Lac object PKS 2005-489 was the target of a multi-wavelength campaign with simultaneous observations in the TeV gamma-ray (H.E.S.S.), GeV gamma-ray (Fermi/LAT), X-ray (RXTE, Swift), UV (Swift) and optical (ATOM, Swift) bands. This campaign was carried out during a high flux state in the synchrotron regime. The flux in the optical and X-ray bands reached the level of the historical maxima. The hard GeV spectrum observed with Fermi/LAT connects well to the very high energy (VHE, E>100GeV) spectrum measured with H.E.S.S. with a peak energy between ~5 and 500 GeV. Compared to observations with contemporaneous coverage in the VHE and X-ray bands in 2004, the X-ray flux was ~50 times higher during the 2009 campaign while the TeV gamma-ray flux shows marginal variation over the years. The spectral energy distribution during this multi-wavelength campaign was fit by a one zone synchrotron self-Compton model with a well determined cutoff in X-rays. The parameters of a one zone SSC model are inconsistent with variability time scales. The variability behaviour over years with the large changes in synchrotron emission and small changes in the inverse Compton emission does not warrant an interpretation within a one-zone SSC model despite an apparently satisfying fit to the broadband data in 2009.

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arXiv2011

Discovery of extended VHE γ-ray emission from the vicinity of the young massive stellar cluster Westerlund 1

Results obtained in very-high-energy (VHE; E > 100 GeV) γ-ray observations performed with the H.E.S.S. telescope array are used to investigate particle acceleration processes in the vicinity of the young massive stellar cluster Westerlund 1 (Wd 1). Imaging of Cherenkov light from γ-ray induced particle cascades in the Earth's atmosphere is used to search for VHE γ rays from the region around Wd 1. Possible catalogued counterparts are searched for and discussed in terms of morphology and energetics of the H.E.S.S. source. The detection of the degree-scale extended VHE γ-ray source HESS J1646-458 is reported based on 45 hours of H.E.S.S. observations performed between 2004 and 2008. The VHE γ-ray source is centred on the nominal position of Wd 1 and detected with a total statistical significance of ~20σ. The emission region clearly extends beyond the H.E.S.S. point-spread function (PSF). The differential energy spectrum follows a power law in energy with an index of Γ=2.19 \pm 0.08_{stat} \pm 0.20_{sys} and a flux normalisation at 1 TeV of Φ_0 = (9.0 \pm 1.4_{stat} \pm 1.8_{sys}) x 10^{-12} TeV^{-1} cm^{-2} s^{-1}. The integral flux above 0.2 TeV amounts to (5.2 \pm 0.9) x 10^{-11} cm^{-2} s^{-1}. Four objects coincident with HESS J1646-458 are discussed in the search of a counterpart, namely the magnetar CXOU J164710.2-455216, the X-ray binary 4U 1642-45, the pulsar PSR J1648-4611 and the massive stellar cluster Wd 1. In a single-source scenario, Wd 1 is favoured as site of VHE particle acceleration. Here, a hadronic parent population would be accelerated within the stellar cluster. Beside this, there is evidence for a multi-source origin, where a scenario involving PSR J1648-4611 could be viable to explain parts of the VHE γ-ray emission of HESS J1646-458.

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arXiv2011

A variable mid-infrared synchrotron break associated with the compact jet in GX 339-4

Many X-ray binaries remain undetected in the mid-infrared, a regime where emission from their compact jets is likely to dominate. Here, we report the detection of the black hole binary GX 339-4 with the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) during a very bright, hard accretion state in 2010. Combined with a rich contemporaneous multiwavelength dataset, clear spectral curvature is found in the infrared, associated with the peak flux density expected from the compact jet. An optically-thin slope of ~-0.7 and a jet radiative power of >6x10^{35} erg/s (d/8 kpc)^2 are measured. A ~24 h WISE light curve shows dramatic variations in mid-infrared spectral slope on timescales at least as short as the satellite orbital period ~95 mins. There is also significant change during one pair of observations spaced by only 11 s. These variations imply that the spectral break associated with the transition from self-absorbed to optically-thin jet synchrotron radiation must be varying across the full wavelength range of ~3-22 microns that WISE is sensitive to, and more. Based on four-band simultaneous mid-infrared detections, the break lies at ~5x10^{13} Hz in at least two epochs of observation, consistent with a magnetic field B~1.5x10^4 G assuming a single-zone synchrotron emission region. The observed variability implies that either B, or the size of the acceleration zone above the jet base, are being modulated by factors of ~10 on relatively-short timescales.

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