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D. R. Ballantyne

Publications and source records attributed to D. R. Ballantyne.

At least 91 records · Page 5Linked to original sources

Simultaneous NuSTAR and XMM-Newton 0.5-80 keV spectroscopy of the Narrow Line Seyfert 1 galaxy SWIFT J2127.4+5654

We present a broad band spectral analysis of the joint XMM-Newton and NuSTAR observational campaign of the Narrow Line Seyfert 1 SWIFT J2127.4+5654, consisting of 300 ks performed during three XMM-Newton orbits. We detect a relativistic broadened iron K$α$ line originating from the innermost regions of the accretion disc surrounding the central black hole, from which we infer an intermediate spin of $a$=$0.58^{+0.11}_{-0.17}$. The intrinsic spectrum is steep ($Γ=2.08\pm0.01$) as commonly found in Narrow Line Seyfert 1 galaxies, while the cutoff energy (E$_{\rm c}=108^{+11}_{-10}$ keV) falls within the range observed in Broad Line Seyfert 1 Galaxies. We measure a low-frequency lag that increases steadily with energy, while at high frequencies, there is a clear lag following the shape of the broad Fe K emission line. Interestingly, the observed Fe K lag in SWIFT J2127.4+5654 is not as broad as in other sources that have maximally spinning black holes. The lag amplitude suggests a continuum-to-reprocessor distance of about $ 10-20\ r_{\mathrm{g}}$. These timing results independently support an intermediate black hole spin and a compact corona.

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NuSTAR Observations of Heavily Obscured Quasars at z ~ 0.5

We present NuSTAR hard X-ray (3-79 keV) observations of three Type 2 quasars at z ~ 0.4-0.5, optically selected from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS). Although the quasars show evidence for being heavily obscured Compton-thick systems on the basis of the 2-10 keV to [OIII] luminosity ratio and multiwavelength diagnostics, their X-ray absorbing column densities (N_H) are poorly known. In this analysis: (1) we study X-ray emission at >10 keV, where X-rays from the central black hole are relatively unabsorbed, in order to better constrain N_H; (2) we further characterize the physical properties of the sources through broad-band near-UV to mid-IR spectral energy distribution (SED) analyses. One of the quasars is detected with NuSTAR at >8 keV with a no-source probability of <0.1%, and its X-ray band ratio suggests near Compton-thick absorption with N_H \gtrsim 5 x 10^23 cm^-2. The other two quasars are undetected, and have low X-ray to mid-IR luminosity ratios in both the low energy (2-10 keV) and high energy (10-40 keV) X-ray regimes that are consistent with extreme, Compton-thick absorption (N_H \gtrsim 10^24 cm^-2). We find that for quasars at z ~ 0.5, NuSTAR provides a significant improvement compared to lower energy (<10 keV) Chandra and XMM-Newton observations alone, as higher column densities can now be directly constrained.

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Measuring the Coronal Properties of IC4329A with NuSTAR

We present an analysis of a ~160 ks NuSTAR observation of the nearby bright Seyfert galaxy IC4329A. The high-quality broadband spectrum enables us to separate the effects of distant reflection from the direct coronal continuum, and to therefore accurately measure the high-energy cutoff to be $E_{cut}=178^{+74}_{-40}$ keV. The coronal emission arises from accretion disk photons Compton up-scattered by a thermal plasma, with the spectral index and cutoff being due to a combination of the finite plasma temperature and optical depth. Applying standard Comptonization models, we measure both physical properties independently using the best signal-to-noise obtained to date in an AGN over the 3-79 keV band. We derive $kT_e=37^{+7}_{-6}$ keV with $τ=1.25^{+0.20}_{-0.10}$ assuming a slab geometry for the plasma, and $kT_e=33^{+6}_{-6}$ keV with $τ=3.41^{+0.58}_{-0.38}$ for a spherical geometry, with both having an equivalent goodness-of-fit.

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The average 0.5-200 keV spectrum of local active galactic nuclei and a new determination of the 2-10 keV luminosity function at z \approx 0

The broadband X-ray spectra of AGNs contains information about the nuclear environment from Schwarzschild radii scales to distances of ~1 pc. In addition, the average shape of the X-ray spectrum is an important input into X-ray background synthesis models. Here, local (z \approx 0) AGN luminosity functions (LFs) in five energy bands are used as a low-resolution, luminosity-dependent X-ray spectrometer in order to constrain the average AGN X-ray spectrum between 0.5 and 200 keV. The 15-55 keV LF measured by Swift-BAT is assumed to be the best determination of the local LF, and then a spectral model is varied to determine the best fit to the 0.5-2 keV, 2-10 keV, 3-20 keV and 14-195 keV LFs. The spectral model consists of a Gaussian distribution of power-laws with a mean photon-index <Γ> and cutoff energy E_cut, as well as contributions from distant and disc reflection. The reflection strength is parameterised by varying the Fe abundance relative to solar, A_Fe, and requiring a specific Fe K equivalent width (EW). In this way, the presence of the X-ray Baldwin effect can be tested. The spectral model that best fits the four LFs has <Γ> = 1.85 \pm 0.15, E_cut=270^{+170}_{-80} keV, A_Fe=0.3^{+0.3}_{-0.15} (90% C.L.). The sub-solar A_Fe indicates the presence of strong reflection given the assumed Fe K EW. Indeed, parameterising the reflection strength with the R parameter gives R=1.7^{+1.7}_{-0.85}. There is moderate evidence for no X-ray Baldwin effect. A critical result of our procedure is that the shape of the local 2-10 keV LF measured by HEAO-1 and MAXI is incompatible with the LFs measured in the hard X-rays by Swift-BAT and RXTE. We therefore present a new determination of the local 2-10 keV LF that is consistent with all other energy bands.This new LF should be used to revise current measurements of the evolving AGN LF in the 2-10 keV band.

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The NuSTAR Extragalactic Survey: A First Sensitive Look at the High-Energy Cosmic X-ray Background Population

We report on the first ten identifications of sources serendipitously detected by the NuSTAR to provide the first sensitive census of the cosmic X-ray background (CXB) source population at >10 keV. We find that these NuSTAR-detected sources are ~100x fainter than those previously detected at >10 keV and have a broad range in redshift and luminosity (z=0.020-2.923 and L_10-40 keV~4x10^{41}-5x10^{45} erg/s); the median redshift and luminosity are z~0.7 and L_10-40 keV~3x10^{44} erg/s, respectively. We characterize these sources on the basis of broad-band ~0.5-32 keV spectroscopy, optical spectroscopy, and broad-band ultraviolet-to-mid-infrared SED analyzes. We find that the dominant source population is quasars with L_10-40 keV>10^{44} erg/s, of which ~50% are obscured with N_H>10^{22} cm^{-2}. However, none of the ten NuSTAR sources are Compton thick (N_H>10^{24} cm^{-2}) and we place a 90% confidence upper limit on the fraction of Compton-thick quasars (L_10-40 keV>10^{44} erg/s) selected at >10 keV of ~33% over the redshift range z=0.5-1.1. We jointly fitted the rest-frame ~10-40 keV data for all of the non-beamed sources with L_10-40 keV>10^{43} erg/s to constrain the average strength of reflection; we find R<1.4 for Γ=1.8, broadly consistent with that found for local AGNs observed at >10 keV. We also constrain the host galaxy masses and find a median stellar mass of ~10^{11} M_sun, a factor ~5 times higher than the median stellar mass of nearby high-energy selected AGNs, which may be at least partially driven by the order of magnitude higher X-ray luminosities of the NuSTAR sources. Within the low source-statistic limitations of our study, our results suggest that the overall properties of the NuSTAR sources are broadly similar to those of nearby high-energy selected AGNs but scaled up in luminosity and mass.

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A bright thermonuclear X-ray burst simultaneously observed with Chandra and RXTE

The prototypical accretion-powered millisecond pulsar SAX J1808.4-3658 was observed simultaneously with Chandra-LETGS and RXTE-PCA near the peak of a transient outburst in November 2011. A single thermonuclear (type-I) burst was detected, the brightest yet observed by Chandra from any source, and the second-brightest observed by RXTE. We found no evidence for discrete spectral features during the burst; absorption edges have been predicted to be present in such bursts, but may require a greater degree of photospheric expansion than the rather moderate expansion seen in this event (a factor of a few). These observations provide a unique data set to study an X-ray burst over a broad bandpass and at high spectral resolution (lambda/delta-lambda=200-400). We find a significant excess of photons at high and low energies compared to the standard black body spectrum. This excess is well described by a 20-fold increase of the persistent flux during the burst. We speculate that this results from burst photons being scattered in the accretion disk corona. These and other recent observations of X-ray bursts point out the need for detailed theoretical modeling of the radiative and hydrodynamical interaction between thermonuclear X-ray bursts and accretion disks.

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The Star Formation Laws of Eddington-Limited Star-Forming Disks

Two important avenues into understanding the formation and evolution of galaxies are the Kennicutt-Schmidt (KS) and Elmegreen-Silk (ES) laws. These relations connect the surface densities of gas and star formation (\sigmagas\ and \sigmastar, respectively) in a galaxy. To elucidate the KS and ES laws for disks where \sigmagas >~ 10^4 Msun pc-2}, we compute 132 Eddington-limited star-forming disk models with radii spanning tens to hundreds of parsecs. The theoretically expected slopes (approx. 1 for the KS law and approx. 0.5 for the ES relation) are relatively robust to spatial averaging over the disks. However, the star formation laws exhibit a strong dependence on opacity that separates the models by the dust-to-gas ratio that may lead to the appearance of a erroneously large slope. The total infrared luminosity (L_TIR) and multiple carbon monoxide (CO) line intensities were computed for each model. While L_TIR can yield an estimate of the average \sigmastar\ that is correct to within a factor of 2, the velocity-integrated CO line intensity is a poor proxy for the average \sigmagas\ for these warm and dense disks, making the CO conversion factor (α_CO) all but useless. Thus, observationally derived KS and ES laws at these values of \sigmagas\ that uses any transition of CO will provide a poor measurement of the underlying star formation relation. Studies of the star formation laws of Eddington-limited disks will require a high-J transition of a high density molecular tracer, as well as a sample of galaxies with known metallicity estimates.

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Ionized Reflection Spectra from Accretion Disks Illuminated by X-ray Pulsars

X-ray reflection signatures are observed around multiple classes of accreting compact objects. Modelling these features yield important constraints on the physics of accretion disks, motivating the development of X-ray reflection models appropriate for a variety of systems and illumination conditions. Here, constant density ionized X-ray reflection models are presented for a disk irradiated with a very hard power-law X-ray spectrum (Γ< 1) and a variable high-energy cutoff. These models are then applied to the Suzaku data of the accreting X-ray pulsar LMC X-4, where very good fits are obtained with a highly ionized reflector responsible for both the broad Fe K line and the soft excess. The ionized reflector shows strong evidence for significant Doppler broadening and is redshifted by ~10^4 km/s. These features indicate that the reflecting material is associated with the complex dynamics occurring at the inner region of the magnetically-truncated accretion disk. Thus, reflection studies of X-ray pulsar spectra may give important insights into the accretion physics at the magnetospheric radius.

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Radio stacking reveals evidence for star formation in the host galaxies of X-ray selected active galactic nuclei at z<1

Nuclear starbursts may contribute to the obscuration of active galactic nuclei (AGNs). The predicted star formation rates are modest, and, for the obscured AGNs that form the X-ray background at z < 1, the associated faint radio emission lies just beyond the sensitivity limits of the deepest surveys. Here, we search for this level of star formation by studying a sample of 359 X-ray selected AGNs at z < 1 from the COSMOS field that are not detected by current radio surveys. The AGNs are separated into bins based on redshift, X-ray luminosity, obscuration, and mid-infrared characteristics. An estimate of the AGN contribution to the radio flux density is subtracted from each radio image, and the images are then stacked to uncover any residual faint radio flux density. All of the bins containing 24 micron-detected AGNs are detected with a signal-to-noise >3sigma in the stacked radio images. In contrast, AGNs not detected at 24 microns are not detected in the resulting stacked radio images. This result provides strong evidence that the stacked radio signals are likely associated with star formation. The estimated star formation rates derived from the radio stacks range from 3 solar masses per year to 29 solar masses per year. Although it is not possible to associate the radio emission with a specific region of the host galaxies, these results are consistent with the predictions of nuclear starburst disks in AGN host galaxies.

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Lifting the Veil on Obscured Accretion: Active Galactic Nuclei Number Counts and Survey Strategies for Imaging Hard X-ray Missions

Finding and characterizing the population of active galactic nuclei (AGNs) that produces the X-ray background (XRB) is necessary to connect the history of accretion to observations of galaxy evolution at longer wavelengths. The year 2012 will see the deployment of the first hard X-ray imaging telescope that, through deep extragalactic surveys, will be able to measure the AGN population at the energies where the XRB peaks (~20-30 keV). Here, we present predictions of AGN number counts in three hard X-ray bandpasses: 6-10 keV, 10-30 keV and 30-60 keV. Separate predictions are presented for the number counts of Compton thick AGNs, the most heavily obscured active galaxies. The number counts are calculated for five different models of the XRB that differ in the assumed hard X-ray luminosity function, the evolution of the Compton thick AGNs, and the underlying AGN spectral model. The majority of the hard X-ray number counts will be Compton thin AGNs, but there is a >10x increase in the Compton thick number counts from the 6-10 keV to the 10-30 keV band. The Compton thick population show enough variation that a hard X-ray number counts measurement will constrain the models. The computed number counts are used to consider various survey strategies for the NuSTAR mission, assuming a total exposure time of 6.2 Ms. We find that multiple surveys will allow a measurement of Compton thick evolution. The predictions presented here should be useful for all future imaging hard X-ray missions.

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A Correlation Between the Ionization State of the Inner Accretion Disk and the Eddington Ratio of Active Galactic Nuclei

X-ray reflection features observed from the innermost regions of accretion disks in Active Galactic Nuclei (AGNs) allow important tests of accretion theory. In recent years it has been possible to use the Fe K line and reflection continuum to parametrize the ionization state of the irradiated inner accretion disk. Here, we collect 10 measurements of xi, the disk ionization parameter, from 8 AGNs with strong evidence for reflection from the inner accretion disk and good black hole mass estimates. We find strong statistical evidence (98.56% confidence) for a nearly linear correlation between xi and the AGN Eddington ratio. Moreover, such a correlation is predicted by a simple application of alpha-disk accretion theory, albeit with a stronger dependence on the Eddington ratio. The theory shows that there will be intrinsic scatter to any correlation as a result of different black hole spins and radii of reflection. There are several possibilities to soften the predicted dependence on the Eddington ratio to allow a closer agreement with the observed correlation, but the current data does not allow for an unique explanation. The correlation can be used to estimate that MCG-6-30-15 should have a highly ionized inner accretion disk, which would imply a black hole spin of ~0.8. Additional measurements of xi from a larger sample of AGNs are needed to confirm the existence of this correlation, and will allow investigation of the accretion disk/corona interaction in the inner regions of accretion disks.

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Achromatic late-time variability in thermonuclear X-ray bursts - an accretion disk disrupted by a nova-like shell?

An unusual Eddington-limited thermonuclear X-ray burst was detected from the accreting neutron star in 2S 0918-549 with the Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer. The burst commenced with a brief (40 ms) precursor and maintained near-Eddington fluxes during the initial 77 s. These characteristics are indicative of a nova-like expulsion of a shell from the neutron star surface. Starting 122 s into the burst, the burst shows strong (87 +/- 1% peak-to-peak amplitude) achromatic fluctuations for 60 s. We speculate that the fluctuations are due to Thompson scattering by fully-ionized inhomogeneities in a resettling accretion disk that was disrupted by the effects of super-Eddington fluxes. An expanding shell may be the necessary prerequisite for the fluctuations.

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Modelling the time dependence of the TeV Gamma-ray source at the Galactic Centre

The physical mechanism behind the TeV gamma-ray source observed at the centre of the Galaxy is still unknown. One intriguing possibility is that the accretion flow onto the central supermassive black hole is responsible for accelerating protons to TeV energies which then diffuse outward to interact with molecular gas at distances of ~1 pc. Here, we build on our earlier detailed calculations of the proton transport to consider the time and energy dependence of the TeV signal following a burst of particle acceleration at Sgr A*. We find that, due to the strong energy dependence of the proton diffusion, any variability in the particle acceleration rate will only be visible in the TeV signal after a delay of ~ 10 yrs, and only at energies >~ 10 TeV. If the accelerator is long-lived it must have been running for at least 10^4 yrs and have a hard proton injection spectrum of α=0.7 (where dn/dE_inj \propto E^{-α}) in order to produce the correct amount of high energy gamma-ray flux. This rapid diffusion of high energy protons also rules out the possibility that the observed TeV source is directly related to the period of increased activity of Sgr A* that ended ~ 100 yrs ago. However, a good fit to the observed H.E.S.S. data was found with α=2.7 for the scenario of a brief (~few year long) burst of particle acceleration that occurred ~ 10 yrs ago. If such bursts are common then they will keep the TeV source energised and will likely produce spectral variability at >~ 10 TeV on <~ 5 yr timescales. This model also implies that particle acceleration may be an important mechanism in reducing the radiative efficiency of weakly accreting black holes.

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Relativistic Lines and Reflection from the Inner Accretion Disks Around Neutron Stars

A number of neutron star low-mass X-ray binaries have recently been discovered to show broad, asymmetric Fe K emission lines in their X-ray spectra. These lines are generally thought to be the most prominent part of a reflection spectrum, originating in the inner part of the accretion disk where strong relativistic effects can broaden emission lines. We present a comprehensive, systematic analysis of Suzaku and XMM-Newton spectra of 10 neutron star low-mass X-ray binaries, all of which display broad Fe K emission lines. Of the 10 sources, 4 are Z sources, 4 are atolls and 2 are accreting millisecond X-ray pulsars (also atolls). The Fe K lines are well fit by a relativistic line model for a Schwarzschild metric, and imply a narrow range of inner disk radii (6 - 15 GM/c^2) in most cases. This implies that the accretion disk extends close to the neutron star surface over a range of luminosities. Continuum modeling shows that for the majority of observations, a blackbody component (plausibly associated with the boundary layer) dominates the X-ray emission from 8 - 20 keV. Thus it appears likely that this spectral component produces the majority of the ionizing flux that illuminates the accretion disk. Therefore, we also fit the spectra with a blurred reflection model, wherein a blackbody component illuminates the disk. This model fits well in most cases, supporting the idea that the boundary layer is illuminating a geometrically thin disk.

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The Integrated Relativistic Iron Line from Active Galactic Nuclei: Chasing the Spin Evolution of Supermassive Black Holes

The spin of a supermassive black hole (SMBH) is directly related to the radiative efficiency of accretion on to the hole, and therefore impacts the amount of fuel required for the black hole to reach a certain mass. Thus, a knowledge of the SMBH spin distribution and evolution is necessary to develop a comprehensive theory of the growth of SMBHs and their impact on galaxy formation. Currently, the only direct measurement of SMBH spin is through fitting the broad Fe K line in AGNs. The evolution of spins could be determined by fitting the broad line in the integrated spectra of AGNs over different redshift intervals. The accuracy of these measurements will depend on the observed integrated line strength. Here, we present theoretical predictions of the integrated relativistic Fe K line strength as a function of redshift and AGN luminosity. The equivalent widths of the integrated lines are much less than 300 eV. Searches for the integrated line will be easiest for unobscured AGNs with 2-10 keV luminosities between 44 < log L_{X} <= 45. The total integrated line makes up less than 4% of the X-ray background, but its shape is sensitive to the average SMBH spin. By following these recommendations, future International X-ray Observatory surveys of broad Fe K lines should be able to determine the spin evolution of SMBHs.

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The Evolution and Eddington Ratio Distribution of Compton Thick Active Galactic Nuclei

Previous studies of the active galactic nuclei (AGN) contribution to the cosmic X-ray background (CXB) consider only observable parameters such as luminosity and absorbing column. Here, for the first time, we extend the study of the CXB to physical parameters including the Eddington ratio of the sources and the black hole mass. In order to calculate the contribution to the CXB of AGN accreting at various Eddington ratios, an evolving Eddington ratio space density model is calculated. In particular, Compton thick (CT) AGN are modeled as accreting at specific, physically motivated Eddington ratios instead of as a simple extension of the Compton thin type 2 AGN population. Comparing against the observed CT AGN space densities and log N-log S relation indicates that CT AGN are likely a composite population of AGN made up of sources accreting either at >90% or <1% of their Eddington rate.

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LSST Science Book, Version 2.0

A survey that can cover the sky in optical bands over wide fields to faint magnitudes with a fast cadence will enable many of the exciting science opportunities of the next decade. The Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST) will have an effective aperture of 6.7 meters and an imaging camera with field of view of 9.6 deg^2, and will be devoted to a ten-year imaging survey over 20,000 deg^2 south of +15 deg. Each pointing will be imaged 2000 times with fifteen second exposures in six broad bands from 0.35 to 1.1 microns, to a total point-source depth of r~27.5. The LSST Science Book describes the basic parameters of the LSST hardware, software, and observing plans. The book discusses educational and outreach opportunities, then goes on to describe a broad range of science that LSST will revolutionize: mapping the inner and outer Solar System, stellar populations in the Milky Way and nearby galaxies, the structure of the Milky Way disk and halo and other objects in the Local Volume, transient and variable objects both at low and high redshift, and the properties of normal and active galaxies at low and high redshift. It then turns to far-field cosmological topics, exploring properties of supernovae to z~1, strong and weak lensing, the large-scale distribution of galaxies and baryon oscillations, and how these different probes may be combined to constrain cosmological models and the physics of dark energy.

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Balancing the Cosmic Energy Budget: The Cosmic X-ray Background, Blazars and the Compton Thick AGN Fraction

At energies ~>2 keV, active galactic nuclei (AGN) are the source of the cosmic X-ray background (CXB). For AGN population synthesis models to replicate the peak region of the CXB (~30 keV), a highly obscured and therefore nearly invisible class of AGN, known as Compton thick (CT) AGN, must be assumed to contribute nearly a third of the CXB. In order to constrain the CT fraction of AGN and the CT number density we consider several hard X-ray AGN luminosity functions and the contribution of blazars to the CXB. Following the unified scheme, the radio AGN luminosity function is relativistically beamed to create a radio blazar luminosity function. An average blazar spectral energy density model is created to transform radio luminosity to X-ray luminosity. We find the blazar contribution to the CXB to be 12% in the 0.5-2 keV band, 7.4% in the 2-10 keV band, 8.9% in the 15-55 keV band, and 100% in the MeV region. When blazars are included in CXB synthesis models, CT AGN are predicted to be roughly one-third of obscured AGN, in contrast to the prediction of one half if blazars are not considered. Our model implies a BL Lac X-ray duty cycle of ~13%, consistent with the concept of intermittent jet activity in low power radio galaxies.

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