arXiv subjects

Eliot Quataert

Publications and source records attributed to Eliot Quataert.

At least 37 records · Page 2Linked to original sources

arXiv2026

Resolving the (Debate About) Nozzle Shocks in Tidal Disruption Events

When a star passes within the Roche limit of a supermassive black hole (SMBH), it is pulled apart by the BH's tidal field in a tidal disruption event (TDE). The resulting flare is powered by the circularization and accretion of bound stellar debris, which initially returns to the BH on eccentric orbits in a thin debris stream. The returning fluid elements follow inclined orbits that converge near pericenter, resulting in extreme vertical compression to scales $10^{-4}~R_\odot$ and the formation of a nozzle shock. Dissipation at the nozzle shock may affect circularization by altering the properties of the debris stream, but its role is the subject of ongoing debate. We develop an idealized model for the debris stream evolution combining 3D smoothed-particle hydrodynamics simulations, the semi-analytic affine model, and 1D finite-volume hydrodynamic simulations. Because our model is computationally cheap, we can unambiguously resolve the nozzle shock, use a realistic equation of state, and follow the debris stream evolution at many different times. Near peak fallback, Hydrogen recombination and molecular Hydrogen formation broaden the stream by a factor $\sim 5$, enhancing dissipation at the nozzle. However, the dissipation is still insufficient to directly circularize the debris by in-plane pressure gradients. Instead, the thicker stream substantially increases the likelihood that the stream self-intersects on the second orbit, despite relativistic nodal precession. The stream properties at self-intersection are sensitive to dissipation at the nozzle and the timing of focal points where the ballistic trajectories of the debris converge. Our results clarify the nozzle shock's role in circularization in TDEs, providing a foundation for more realistic circularization and emission models.

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arXiv2026

Self-Limited Accretion onto Embedded Binaries in a Uniform Medium

We study accretion from a uniform gas at rest onto equal-mass binaries -- the binary Bondi problem -- as a function of adiabatic index~$γ$ and compactness $ξ\equiv R_B/a$, where $R_B$ is the Bondi radius of the binary and $a$ is the component separation. We present three-dimensional hydrodynamic simulations spanning $ξ= \{0.1, 1, 10\}$ at $γ= \{1, 4/3, 5/3\}$. Isothermal gas ($γ= 1$) accretes cooperatively at high compactness, with efficiency $η\equiv \dot{M}_{\rm binary}/\dot{M}_{\rm Bondi} \to 1$ for $ξ\gg 1$ and a stable sonic surface that screens the orbital modulation. Adiabatic gas ($γ> 1$) is self-limiting: the orbit drives shocks that generate entropy, producing convective turbulence that suppresses accretion to $η\approx 0.3$ ($γ= 4/3$) and $η\approx 0.1$ ($γ= 5/3$), burying the orbital signature in broadband noise. We derive a stability criterion from first principles: the sonic surface is the separatrix of the Bondi saddle point, and the binary annihilates it in $N \propto (γ-1)^{-1}(\sqrt{ξ/ξ_m} - 1)$ orbits, where $ξ_m = 4/(5{-}3γ)$ is the container threshold at which the sonic surface first encloses the binary, and the $(γ-1)^{-1}$ divergence follows from the lack of entropy generation at isothermal shocks. For $γ= 5/3$, no saddle point exists at any~$ξ$ and the neutrally stratified Bondi profile is convectively unstable by a distinct mechanism. The single comparison $t_{\rm cool}$ versus $NT$ -- where $T$ is the orbital period -- determines whether an embedded binary accretes cooperatively or throttles its own fuel supply; simulations confirm the analytic thresholds and scaling.

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arXiv2026

Spectral Appearance of Self-gravitating Disks Powered by Stellar Objects: Universal Effective Temperature in the Optical Continuum and Application to Little Red Dots

We revisit the spectral appearance of extended self-gravitating accretion disks surrounding compact central objects such as supermassive black holes. Using dust-poor opacities, we show that all optically thick disk solutions possess a universal outer effective temperature of $T_{\rm eff}\sim 4000-4500$K, closely resembling compact, high-redshift sources known as Little Red Dots (LRDs). Assuming the extended disk is primarily heated by stellar sources, this ``disk Hayashi limit" fixes the dominant optical continuum temperature of the disk spectrum independent of accretion rate $\dot{M}$, central mass $M_\bullet$, and disk viscosity $α$, and removes the parameter-tuning required in previous disk interpretations of LRDs. The formation and accretion of embedded stellar objects can both power the emission of the outer disk and hollow out the inner disk, suppressing variable UV/X-ray associated with a standard quasar. The resulting disk emission is dominated by a luminous optical continuum while a separate, non-variable UV component arises from stellar populations on the nuclear to galaxy scale. We map the optimal region of parameter space for such systems and show that LRD-like appearances naturally emerge for $\dot{M}/α\gtrsim 0.1 M_\odot /{\rm yr}$, a threshold insensitive to $M_\bullet$, below which the system may transition into classical non-self-gravitating AGN disks, potentially a later evolution stage. We expect this transition to be accompanied by the enhancement of metallicity and production of dust, giving rise to far infrared emission. This picture offers a physically motivated and quantitative framework connecting LRDs with AGNs and their associated nuclear stellar population.

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arXiv2026

X-ray Transmission Through Photoionized Gas with Moderate Thomson Optical Depth

We model the absorption of X-rays by gas obscuring the source and photoionized by it. We consider a broad range of column densities, including both Thomson-thin and Thomson-thick media. For the Thomson thin regime, we derive a simple criterion based on the source luminosity and spectrum, as well as the medium radius and column density, that distinguishes between the following cases: (i) The absorption can be modeled well by a neutral medium; (ii) The radiation ionizes its way through the medium, and no absorption is expected; and (iii) A detailed model is required because the column density inferred from modeling the absorption with a neutral gas is much lower than the actual column density, or because the absorption features cannot be fitted by a neutral absorber. We derive the criterion analytically using a toy model of hydrogen and oxygen and calibrate it for realistic compositions with metallicities in the range $Z/Z_{\odot}=0.01-50$, using \textsc{Cloudy}. We generalize the model to the Thomson-thick regime, where we consider, alongside photoabsorption, electron scattering, Compton heating, Comptonization, and photon degradation. In this case, the emergent spectrum depends on the boundary condition experienced by photons scattered back towards the source. We discuss the effect of a reflective boundary and a reprocessing boundary. We provide simple criteria for the expected absorption state and discuss additional effects that alter the spectrum. The main motivation for our modeling is X-ray emission from supernovae interacting with the circumstellar medium; however, we expect it to be useful for many other applications.

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arXiv2026

Fading into darkness: A weak mass ejection and low-efficiency fallback accompanying black hole formation in M31-2014-DS1

Stellar-mass black holes (BHs) can form from the near-complete collapse of massive stars, causing them to abruptly disappear. The star M31-2014-DS1 in the Andromeda galaxy was reported to exhibit such a disappearance between 2014 and 2022, with properties consistent with the failed explosion of a $\approx 12 - 13$ M$_\odot$ yellow supergiant leading to the formation of a $\approx 5$ M$_\odot$ BH. We present mid-infrared (MIR) observations of the remnant obtained with the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) and X-ray observations from the Chandra X-ray Observatory in 2024. The JWST MIRI/NIRSpec data reveal an extremely red source, showing strong blueshifted absorption from molecular gas (CO, CO$_2$, H$_2$O, SO$_2$) and deep silicate dust features. Modeling the dust continuum confirms continued bolometric fading of the central source to $\log(L/L_\odot)\approx3.88$ ($\approx7-8$% of the progenitor luminosity), surrounded by a dust shell spanning $\approx40-200$ au. Modeling of the molecular gas indicates $\sim 0.1$ M$_\odot$ of gas expanding at $\approx 100$ km s$^{-1}$ near the inner edge of the dust shell. No X-ray source is detected down to a luminosity limit of $L_X\lesssim1.5\times10^{35}$ erg s$^{-1}$. We show that the panchromatic observations are explained by (i) a low-energy ($\approx10^{46}$ erg) ejection of the outer H-rich progenitor envelope and (ii) a fading central BH powered by inefficient ($\sim0.1$% in mass) accretion of loosely bound fallback material. The analysis robustly establishes the bolometric fading of M31-2014-DS1 and provides the first cohesive insights into BH formation via low-energy explosions and long-term fallback.

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arXiv2026

Disappearance of a massive star in the Andromeda Galaxy due to formation of a black hole

When a massive star reaches the end of its lifetime, its core collapses and releases neutrinos that drive a shock into the outer layers (stellar envelope). A sufficiently strong shock ejects the envelope, producing a supernova. If the shock fails to eject it, the envelope is predicted to fall back onto the collapsing core, producing a stellar-mass black hole (BH) and causing the star to disappear. We report observations of M31-2014-DS1, a hydrogen-depleted supergiant in the Andromeda Galaxy. In 2014 it brightened in the mid-infrared. From 2017 to 2022 it faded by factors of $\gtrsim10^4$ in optical light, becoming undetectable, and $\gtrsim10$ in total light. We interpret these observations, and those of a previous event in NGC 6946, as evidence for failed supernovae forming stellar-mass BHs.

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arXiv2026

Water absorption confirms cool atmospheres in two little red dots

Little red dots (LRDs) are an abundant population of compact high-redshift sources with red rest-frame optical continua, discovered by the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST). Their red colors and power sources have been attributed either to dust reddening of standard hot accretion disks or to intrinsically cool thermal emission from dense hydrogen envelopes, in both cases surrounding accreting supermassive black holes. These scenarios predict order-of-magnitude differences in emission temperature but have lacked decisive temperature diagnostics. Here we report a prominent absorption feature at rest-frame $\sim 1.4 \, μ\mathrm{m}$ in two out of four LRDs at $z \sim 2$ with high signal-to-noise JWST spectra, among the coolest from a large LRD sample. The feature matches the shape and wavelength of the water absorption band seen in cool stars. Atmosphere models require $T \lesssim 3000\, \mathrm{K}$ to reproduce it, confirming unambiguously the presence of a cool, dense gas component contributing $20-30\%$ to the emergent continuum. A composite model reproduces both the absorption and the rest-frame optical-to-infrared continuum shape and suggests a temperature range ($\sim2000\, \mathrm{K} - 4000 \, \mathrm{K}$) rather than a single blackbody predicted by some gas envelope models. Molecular absorption demonstrates that the red continua of some LRDs are intrinsic rather than dust-reddened, implying order-of-magnitude lower bolometric luminosities and black-hole masses, and providing a new diagnostic of the emitting gas.

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arXiv2026

AT2018cow Powered by a Shock in Aspherical Circumstellar Media

We present a quantitative model for the luminous fast blue optical transient AT2018cow in which a shock propagating through an aspherical circumstellar medium (CSM) produces the X-ray and UV/optical/NIR emission. X-rays are emitted from hot post-shock electrons, and soft X-ray photons are reprocessed into optical/UV emission in the cool downstream. This naturally explains two previously puzzling features: (i) the coordinated evolution of the optical and soft X-ray after day 20, (ii) the hard X-ray hump above 10 keV that disappears around day 15 as the Thomson optical depth transitions from $τ_T \gg1$ to $τ_T \sim 1$. Our model is over-constrained, and it quantitatively reproduces the bolometric luminosity evolution, soft X-ray spectrum, and time-dependent soft/hard X-ray and soft X-ray/optical luminosity ratios. It also explains additional puzzles: X-ray fluctuations with $\sim4-10$ day timescales arise from a global radiative shock instability, while the NIR excess and the apparent receding blackbody radius result from reprocessed X-rays in matter far from thermodynamic equilibrium. The radio is naturally explained as originating from a shock driven by the same ejecta in the more dilute CSM. The light curve steepening after $\sim 40$ days likely indicates the shock reaches the edge of the dense CSM at $\sim {\rm few} \times 10^{15}$ cm. We infer explosion energy $\sim 1-5 \times 10^{50}$ erg, carried by an ejecta at $\sim 0.1c$ and a mass of $0.01-0.05 M_\odot$, in a dense asymmetric CSM with $\sim 0.3 M_\odot$, embedded in a more dilute CSM.

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arXiv2026

Signatures of Black Hole Spin and Plasma Acceleration in Jet Polarimetry II: Off-Axis Jets

We analyze the polarization of optically thin, stationary, axisymmetric black hole jets at scales of order the light cylinder radius. Our work generalizes the face-on results of Gelles et al. (2025) to arbitrary viewing inclination. Due to a combination of geometry and relativistic aberration, the polarization of the jet is not left-right symmetric, and the degree of asymmetry can shed light on both the viewing angle and the plasma bulk Lorentz factor. We show that there is always a radius in the jet at which the polarization transitions from azimuthal to radial; this radius is different along the spine and limb of the jet. We propose metrics that can be used to constrain the black hole spin, inclination angle, and plasma Lorentz factor from these polarimetric signatures, and we discuss the impact of limb-brightening on these measurements. We anticipate that these polarimetric signatures can be studied with current or forthcoming data in M87, NGC 315, NGC 4261, Centaurus A, Cygnus A, and other systems. Observations of the polarization of the base of the counter-jet in higher inclination sources would provide a particularly promising probe of black hole spin.

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arXiv2025

Cosmic Rays Masquerading as Cool Cores: An Inverse-Compton Origin for Cool Core Cluster Emission

X-ray bright cool-core (CC) clusters contain luminous radio sources accelerating cosmic ray (CR) leptons at prodigious rates. Near the acceleration region, high-energy leptons produce synchrotron (mini)halos and sometimes observable gamma rays, but these leptons have short lifetimes and so cannot propagate far from sources without some rejuvenation. However, low-energy (~0.1-1 GeV) CRs should survive for >Gyr, potentially reaching ~100 kpc before losing energy via inverse-Compton (IC) scattering of CMB photons to keV X-ray energies, with remarkably thermal X-ray spectra. In groups/clusters, this will appear similar to relatively 'cool' gas in cluster cores (i.e. CCs). In lower-mass (e.g. Milky Way/M31) halos, analogous CR IC emission will appear as hot (super-virial) gas at outer CGM radii, explaining recent diffuse X-ray observations. We show that for plausible (radio/gamma-ray observed) lepton injection rates, the CR-IC emission could contribute significantly to the X-ray surface brightness (SB) in CCs, implying that CC gas densities may have been overestimated and alleviating the cooling flow problem. A significant IC contribution to diffuse X-ray emission in CC clusters also explains the tight correlation between the X-ray 'cooling luminosity' and AGN/cavity/jet power, because the apparent CC emission is itself driven by the radio source. Comparing observed Sunyaev Zeldovich to X-ray inferred pressures at $\ll 100$ kpc in CCs represents a clean test of this scenario, and existing data appears to favor significant CR-IC. A significant IC contribution also implies that X-ray inferred gas-phase metallicities have been underestimated in CCs, potentially explaining the discrepancy between X-ray (sub-Solar) and optical/UV (super-Solar) observed metallicities in the central ~10 kpc of nearby CCs. We also discuss the model's connection to observations of multiphase gas in clusters.

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arXiv2025

Estimation of Magnetic Fields from Synchrotron Emission: Numerical Tests

We use models of spectrally resolved cosmic ray (CR) transport in TIGRESS MHD simulations of the local ISM to produce synthetic synchrotron emission and to test, on scales from a few kpc down to ~10 pc, the traditional estimate of magnetic field strength based on the assumption of equipartition between the magnetic and total CR energy densities. Our analysis shows that the traditional equipartition estimate works well at the kpc scale of the simulation box, but breaks down at smaller scales. We find that the predicted magnetic field strength can be improved at small scales by assuming a constant CR energy density across each mock radio observation. The large-scale mean CR energy density can be estimated by assuming equipartition with the large-scale mean magnetic energy density, or as a function of additional observable quantities such as the star formation rate surface density or gas weight. In addition to estimating the magnetic field strength, we use synthetic polarized emission to create maps of the magnetic field direction. We find that the true magnetic field direction can be recovered well from the mock observations.

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arXiv2025

The Balmer Break and Optical Continuum of Little Red Dots from Super-Eddington Accretion

The physical origin of Little Red Dots (LRDs)--compact extragalactic sources with red rest-optical continua and broad Balmer lines--remains elusive. The redness of LRDs is likely intrinsic, suggesting optically thick gas emitting at a characteristic effective temperature of $\sim5000{\rm~K}$. Meanwhile, many LRD spectra exhibit a Balmer break, often attributed to absorption by a dense gas shell surrounding an AGN. Using semi-analytical atmosphere models and radiation transport calculations, we show that a super-Eddington accretion system can give rise to a Balmer break and a red optical color simultaneously, without invoking external gas absorption for the break or dust reddening. The break originates from a discontinuity in opacity across the Balmer limit, similar to that of early-type stars, but the lower photosphere density of super-Eddington systems, $ρ<10^{-9}{\rm~g~cm^{-3}}$, implies a significant opacity contrast even at a cool photosphere temperature of $\sim5000{\rm~K}$. Furthermore, while accretion in the form of a standard thin disk requires fine tuning to match the optical color of LRDs, an alternative scenario of a geometrically thick, roughly spherical accretion flow implies an effective temperature $4000{\rm~K}\lesssim T_{\rm eff}\lesssim6000{\rm~K}$ that is very insensitive to the accretion rate (analogous to the Hayashi line in stellar models). The continuum spectra from the latter scenario align with the Balmer break and optical color of currently known LRDs. We discuss predictions of our model and the prospects for more realistic spectra based on super-Eddington accretion simulations.

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arXiv2025

Triples as Links between Binary Black Hole Mergers, their Electromagnetic Counterparts, and Galactic Black Holes

We propose a formation pathway linking black holes (BHs) observed in gravitational-wave (GW) mergers, wide BH-stellar systems uncovered by Gaia, and accreting low-mass X-ray binaries (LMXBs). In this scenario, a stellar-mass BH binary undergoes isolated binary evolution and merges while hosting a distant, dynamically unimportant tertiary stellar companion. The tertiary becomes relevant only after the merger, when the remnant BH receives a GW recoil kick. Depending on the kick velocity and system configuration, the outcome can be: (i) a bright electromagnetic (EM) counterpart to the GW merger; (ii) an LMXB; (iii) a wide BH-stellar companion resembling the Gaia BH population; or (iv) an unbound, isolated BH. Modeling the three-body dynamics, we find that $\sim 0.02\%$ of LIGO-Virgo-KAGRA (LVK) mergers may be followed by an EM counterpart within $\sim$10 days, produced by tidal disruption of the star by the BH. The flare is likely brightest in the optical-UV and lasts days to weeks; in some cases, partial disruption causes recurring flares with a period of $\sim$2 months. We further estimate that this channel can produce $\sim 1-10\%$ of Gaia BH systems in the Milky Way. This scenario provides the first physically motivated link between GW sources, Gaia BHs, and some X-ray binaries, and predicts a rare but robust pathway for EM counterparts to binary BH mergers, potentially detectable in LVK's O5 run.

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arXiv2025

Interferometric inference of black hole spin from photon ring size and brightness

The $n=1$ photon ring is a full image of the astrophysical source around a black hole, produced by photons that execute $n\approx1$ half-orbit around the event horizon on their way to an observer. The Black Hole Explorer (BHEX) is a proposed extension of the Event Horizon Telescope to space that will target the $n=1$ photon rings of the supermassive black holes M87${}^\ast$ and Sgr\,A${}^\ast$. In this paper, we introduce a new interferometric observable that will be directly measurable on BHEX baselines and which admits a clear image-domain interpretation in terms of the photon ring brightness profile. Across a wide range of semi-analytic equatorial emission models, we find that the azimuthal intensity profile of the ring can change depending on the astrophysics of the source, but its width $w_b$ is weakly sensitive to these details -- much like the ring shape, which has previously been identified as a probe of the spacetime geometry. Our survey suggests that interferometric measurements of the photon ring diameter and $w_b$ can place constraints (to $\lesssim\!20\%$) on the spin and inclination of a black hole with a known mass-to-distance ratio, such as Sgr\,A${}^\ast$. State-of-the-art numerical simulations support this finding, paving the way to a precise photon-ring-based spin measurement for Sgr\,A${}^\ast$ with BHEX.

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arXiv2025

Black Hole Polarimetry II: The Connection Between Spin and Polarization

We study synchrotron polarization in spatially resolved horizon-scale images, such as those produced by the Event Horizon Telescope (EHT). In both general relativistic magnetohydrodynamic (GRMHD) simulations as well as simplified models of the black hole magnetosphere, the polarization angle, quantified by the complex observable arg(beta_2), depends strongly and systematically on the black hole spin. This relationship arises from the coupling between spin and the structure of the magnetic field in the emission region, and it can be computed analytically in the force-free limit. To explore this connection further, we develop a semi-analytic inflow framework that solves the time stationary axisymmetric equations of GRMHD in the black hole's equatorial plane; this model can interpolate between the force-free and inertial regimes by varying the magnetization of the inflow. Our model demonstrates how finite inertia modifies the structure of the electromagnetic field and can be used to quantitatively predict the observed polarization pattern. By comparing reduced models, GRMHD simulations, and analytic limits, we show that the observed synchrotron polarization can serve as a robust diagnostic of spin under assumptions about Faraday rotation and the emission geometry. Applied to EHT data, the model disfavors high-spin configurations for both M87* and Sgr A*, highlighting the potential of polarimetric imaging as a probe of both black hole spin and near-horizon plasma physics.

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arXiv2025

QPEs from EMRI Debris Streams Impacting Accretion Disks in Galactic Nuclei

Quasi-periodic eruption (QPE) sources in galactic nuclei are often associated with a stellar object orbiting a supermassive black hole with hours-days period, brought in as an extreme mass-ratio inspiral (EMRI). In the presence of an accretion disk, repeated star-disk collisions lead to ablation of a small fraction of the stellar mass during each disk passage. We analytically follow the evolution of the stellar debris as it is tidally stretched outside the EMRI's Hill sphere, forming an elongated, dilute stream, that subsequently collides with the disk, half an orbit after the previous star-disk encounter. At sufficiently long orbital periods ($\gtrsim 12$ hr), the stream is too dilute to penetrate the disk, and is instead strongly shocked and deflected at its surface through a reverse shock. We obtain the resulting emission and explore implications for QPE observations. Due to their low optical depth and prolonged interaction time, radiation from the shocked streams typically dominates over that from shocked disk gas directly impacted by the star or by ejecta confined within its Hill sphere, as was first proposed by Yao et al. 2025. We find that: (1) QPE flare durations reflect the stream-disk collision timescale; (2) Flare luminosities of $10^{42-43}$ erg/s, consistent with observed QPEs, are robustly produced; (3) Soft X-ray flares with temperatures of ${\sim}$100 eV arise when the stream mass is sufficient to sustain a radiation mediated shock at the collision interface. Higher mass streams yield softer flares, typically outshone by the disk, while lower mass streams result in collisionless shocks, which likely produce fainter and harder flares. We discuss observational implications of the temporal evolution of the underlying disk, assuming it is the remnant of a prior tidal disruption event in the same galaxy.

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arXiv2025

Radiation Hydrodynamic Simulations of Low-Energy Explosions of Red and Yellow Supergiants

A variety of physical processes leads to the low-energy ejection of material from the hydrogen-rich envelopes of red and yellow supergiants. These include common envelope events, stellar mergers, eruptive mass loss, and failed supernovae. These events may appear as luminous red novae, intermediate luminosity red transients, supernova imposters, or other transients with similar lightcurves and colors that are followed by the disappearance of the progenitor star (e.g. failed supernovae). The Vera C. Rubin Observatory will find these events in large numbers; detailed modeling of their lightcurves is essential for photometrically differentiating between these important physical processes in the lives of massive stars. We use one-dimensional, radiation hydrodynamic simulations to model the lightcurves of low-energy explosions of red and yellow supergiants. Red supergiant explosions have durations of 100-400 days, longer than Type IIp supernovae, while stripped, yellow supergiant explosions have durations of 10s of days. Our models probe the boundary between the radiation-pressure dominated and gas-pressure dominated regimes. We provide fitting formulae for the plateau luminosity and duration of the events. Finally, we show that the failed supernovae candidates in NGC 6946 and M31 are consistent with failed supernovae models for explosion energies of $\sim10^{47}-10^{49}$ erg.

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arXiv2025

Second public data release of the FIRE-2 cosmological zoom-in simulations of galaxy formation

We describe the second data release (DR2) of the FIRE-2 cosmological zoom-in simulations of galaxy formation, from the Feedback In Realistic Environments (FIRE) project, available at http://flathub.flatironinstitute.org/fire. DR2 includes all snapshots for most simulations, starting at z ~ 99, with all snapshot time spacings <~ 25 Myr. The Core suite -- comprising 14 Milky Way-mass galaxies, 5 SMC/LMC-mass galaxies, and 4 lower-mass galaxies -- includes 601 snapshots to z = 0. For the Core suite, we also release resimulations with physics variations: (1) dark-matter-only versions; (2) a modified ultraviolet background with later reionization at z = 7.8; (3) magnetohydrodynamics, anisotropic conduction, and viscosity in gas; and (4) a model for cosmic-ray injection, transport, and feedback (assuming a constant diffusion coefficient). The Massive Halo suite now includes 8 massive galaxies with 278 snapshots to z = 1. The High Redshift suite includes 34 simulations: in addition to the 22 simulations run to z = 5, we now include 12 additional simulations run to z = 7 and z = 9. We also release 4 dark-matter-only cosmological boxes used to generate zoom-in initial conditions for many FIRE simulations. Most simulations include catalogs of (sub)halos and galaxies at all available snapshots, and most Core simulations to z = 0 include full halo merger trees.

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