arXiv subjects

Eloy Peña-Asensio

Publications and source records attributed to Eloy Peña-Asensio.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

arXiv2026

Consistency between dynamical modeling and photometrically derived masses of fireballs

We present a three-point inverse solution for reconstructing meteoroid deceleration and mass-loss histories from sparse observations constrained only by the entry, peak-brightness, and terminal points. The method combines the $α$-$β$ analytical formalism with a derivative-free global optimizer and a numerical inversion of the height-velocity relation, enabling the retrieval of physically consistent solutions even when full velocity profiles are unavailable. Applied to the 2017-2018 European Fireball Network (EN) catalog, the approach achieves an 88% convergence rate when fitting only height-velocity pairs, and 63% when terminal and initial masses are also imposed. 52% of mass-constrained solutions (34% overall) yield bulk densities consistent with their $PE$ classes, with higher strength emerging as the primary discriminator among events retaining coherent classifications when only 3 points are used as input data. Rapidly evolving high-energy, high-mass events show the largest incompatibility with the $α$-$β$ model. The inversion produces a continuous bulk-density distribution spanning $\sim$300-4000 kg$\,$m$^{-3}$, in contrast to the discrete densities fixed by $PE$-based categories. The EN fireball dataset is now supplemented with self-consistent $α$ and $β$ estimates.

astro-ph.EP↗

arXiv2025

The Distribution of Earth-Impacting Interstellar Objects

In this paper we calculate the expected orbital elements, radiants, and velocities of Earth-impacting interstellar objects. We generate a synthetic population of $\sim10^{10}$ interstellar objects with M-star kinematics in order to obtain $\sim10^4$ Earth-impactors. The relative flux of impactors arriving from the direction of the solar apex and the galactic plane is enhanced by a factor of $\sim2$ relative to the mean. The fastest impactors also arrive from these directions, although Earth-impactors are generally slower than objects in the overall population. This is because the Earth-impacting subset contains a higher fraction of low-eccentricity hyperbolic objects which are more strongly affected by gravitational focusing. Earth-impacting interstellar objects are more likely to have retrograde orbits close to the ecliptic plane. A selection effect makes the distribution of inclination of Earth-impacting interstellar objects uniform/sinusoidal at low/high perihelion distances. In turn, low perihelion impactors have higher impact probability towards the ecliptic plane. The overall impactor population therefore exhibits an intermediate inclination distribution between uniform and sinusoidal. The highest velocity impacts are most likely to occur in the spring when the Earth is moving towards the solar apex. However, impacts in general are more likely to occur during the winter when the Earth is located in the direction of the antapex. Interstellar objects are more likely to impact the Earth at low latitudes close to the equator, with a slight preference for the Northern hemisphere due to the location of the apex. These distributions are independent of the assumed interstellar object number density, albedos, and size-frequency distribution and are publicly available.

astro-ph.EP↗

arXiv2025

The interstellar flux gap: From dust to kilometer-scale objects

Context. Three kilometer-sized interstellar objects (ISOs) have been detected transiting the Solar System, and spacecraft have directly measured micrometer-scale interstellar dust (ISD). Yet no intermediate-size interstellar meteoroids have been identified in current meteor surveys. Aims. We test whether a power-law flux extrapolation connecting spacecraft ISD and kilometer-scale ISOs is consistent with meteor surveys, and we quantify the expected interstellar impacting flux based on various observational reports. Methods. We compiled differential fluxes and limits from spacecraft ISD, radar and optical meteor surveys, and theoretical estimates. We evaluated the power-law size-frequency fits, computed the 3I-like flux, and compared measured fluxes to predictions. Results. The spacecraft-measured dust flux exceeds extrapolations constrained by meteor surveys and kilometer-scale ISOs by $\sim$2-7 orders of magnitude. An $r^{-3.0}$ fit combining spacecraft ISD detections with kilometer-scale ISOs overpredicts the number of meteors with hyperbolic orbits, whereas slopes of $r^{-2.7}$-$r^{-2.3}$ (derived from radar and optical meteor upper limits, respectively) instead yield interplanetary-to-interstellar flux ratios of $10^{3}$-$10^{6}$. Conclusions. A simple power-law from ISD to ISOs is inconsistent with meteor survey constraints and yields unrealistic predictions for interstellar meteoroids. The data reveal a gap between submicron dust entrained in the Local Interstellar Cloud (LIC) and macroscopic bodies ejected from planetary systems. This gap may reflect distinct origins and destruction-transport processes rather than a continuous size-frequency distribution. This would imply either the dominance of a small-particle LIC component or the need to reassess spacecraft dust fluxes.

astro-ph.EP↗

arXiv2025

The Feasibility of a Spacecraft Flyby with the Third Interstellar Object 3I/ATLAS from Earth or Mars

We investigate the feasibility of a spacecraft mission to conduct a flyby of 3I/ATLAS, the third macroscopic interstellar object discovered on July 1 2025, as it traverses the Solar System. There are both ready-to-launch spacecraft currently in storage on Earth, such as Janus, and spacecraft nearing the end of their missions at Mars. We calculate minimum $ΔV$ single-impulse direct transfer trajectories to 3I/ATLAS both from Earth and from Mars. We consider launch dates spanning January 2025 through March 2026 to explore obtainable and hypothetical mission scenarios. Post-discovery Earth departures require a challenging $ΔV\gtrsim24$ km s$^{-1}$ to fly by 3I/ATLAS. By contrast, Mars departures from July 2025 - September 2025 require $ΔV\sim5$ km s$^{-1}$ to achieve an early October flyby -- which is more feasible with existing propulsion capabilities. \added{We further calculate the phase angle and flyby velocity for these trajectories, noting that the resulting flyby speeds would impose significant observational and engineering challenges that a mission would need to overcome.} We discuss how existing spacecraft could be used to observe 3I/ATLAS and how spacecraft at other locations in the Solar System could be repurposed to visit future interstellar objects on short notice.

astro-ph.EP↗

arXiv2025

Error dependencies in the space-based CNEOS fireball database

We evaluate the reliability of CNEOS-derived ephemerides of fireball events given the absence of the underlying data. We analyzed 18 events that have both (i) sufficient satellite information to derive orbits and (ii) ground-based observational counterparts. We quantify the uncertainties on these calibrated events using the orbital similarity criterion $D_D$. We also examine the velocity components imbalance and identify discriminants that can indicate the accuracy of an event. We identify two groups in the CNEOS database. CNEOS data produces ephemeris determinations with $D_D$<0.1 for fireballs reported either (i) after late 2017 or (ii) with impact energies above 0.45 kt with 74-78% of events having $D_D$=0.03$\pm$0.02, while ~11% show $D_D$<0.008. Our statistical test confirms these two parameters as the only reliable discriminants that, when combined, explain the two accuracy groups. Daylight, z-velocity component, low altitude, long duration, and latitude might also indicate errors, although the limited dataset may obscure correlations. No clear discriminants are identified for more restrictive $D_D$ cut-offs. We provide estimates of orbital uncertainties for calibrated events. The hyperbolic fireball subset in the CNEOS database appears as an outlier in the velocity imbalance test. Our results confirm that the fidelity of CNEOS fireball data improved significantly from 2018, likely due to the deployment of next-generation space sensors, and show a growing number of high-velocity events. Hyperbolic candidates should be interpreted with caution, as their velocities and inclinations likely reflect measurement errors. Accuracy constraints remain limited by the dataset size, as evidenced by the lack of statistically significant dependence on duration, preventing strong conclusions from being drawn.

astro-ph.EP↗

arXiv2025

Century-Scale Effect of Climate Change on Meteorite Falls

Climate change is inducing a global atmospheric contraction above the tropopause (~10 km), leading to systematic decrease in neutral air density. The impact of climate change on small meteoroids has already been observed over the last two decades, with documented shifts in their ablation altitudes in the mesosphere (~50-85 km) and lower thermosphere (~85-120 km). This study evaluates the potential effect of these changes on meteorite-dropping fireballs, which typically penetrate the stratosphere (~10-50 km). As a case study, we simulate the atmospheric entry of the fragile Winchcombe carbonaceous chondrite under projected atmospheric conditions for the year 2100 assuming a moderate future emission scenario. Using a semi-empirical fragmentation and ablation model, we compare the meteoroid's light curve and deceleration under present and future atmospheric density profiles. The results indicate a modest variation of the ablation heights, with the catastrophic fragmentation occurring 300 m lower and the luminous flight terminating 190 m higher. The absolute magnitude peak remains unchanged, but the fireball would appear 0.5 dimmer above ~120 km. The surviving meteorite mass is reduced by only 0.1 g. Our findings indicate that century-scale variations in atmospheric density caused by climate change moderately influence bright fireballs and have a minimal impact on meteorite survival.

astro-ph.EP↗

arXiv2025

Discovery and Preliminary Characterization of a Third Interstellar Object: 3I/ATLAS

We report initial observations aimed at the characterization of a third interstellar object. This object, 3I/ATLAS or C/2025 N1 (ATLAS), was discovered on 2025 July 1 UT and has an orbital eccentricity of $e\sim6.1$, perihelion of $q\sim 1.36$ au, inclination of $\sim175^\circ$, and hyperbolic velocity of $V_\infty\sim 58$ km s$^{-1}$. We report deep stacked images obtained using the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope and the Very Large Telescope that resolve a compact coma. Using images obtained from several smaller ground-based telescopes, we find minimal light curve variation for the object over a $\sim4$ day time span. The visible/near-infrared spectral slope of the object is 17.1$\pm$0.2 %/100 nm, comparable to other interstellar objects and primitive solar system small bodies (comets and D-type asteroids). 3I/ATLAS will be observable through early September 2025, then unobservable by Earth-based observatories near perihelion due to low solar elongation. It will be observable again from the ground in late November 2025. Although this limitation unfortunately prohibits detailed Earth-based observations at perihelion when the activity of 3I/ATLAS is likely to peak, spacecraft at Mars could be used to make valuable observations at this time.

astro-ph.EP↗

arXiv2025

Meteoroid stream identification with HDBSCAN unsupervised clustering algorithm

Accurate identification of meteoroid streams is central to understanding their origins and evolution. However, overlapping clusters and background noise hinder classification, an issue amplified for missions such as ESA's LUMIO that rely on meteor shower observations to infer lunar meteoroid impact parameters. This study evaluates the performance of the Hierarchical Density-Based Spatial Clustering of Applications with Noise (HDBSCAN) algorithm for unsupervised meteoroid stream identification, comparing its outcomes with the established Cameras for All-Sky Meteor Surveillance (CAMS) look-up table method. We analyze the CAMS Meteoroid Orbit Database v3.0 using three feature vectors: LUTAB (CAMS geocentric parameters), ORBIT (heliocentric orbital elements), and GEO (adapted geocentric parameters). HDBSCAN is applied with varying minimum cluster sizes and two cluster selection methods (eom and leaf). To align HDBSCAN clusters with CAMS classifications, the Hungarian algorithm determines the optimal mapping. Clustering performance is assessed via the Silhouette score, Normalized Mutual Information, and F1 score, with Principal Component Analysis further supporting the analysis. With the GEO vector, HDBSCAN confirms 39 meteoroid streams, 21 strongly aligning with CAMS. The ORBIT vector identifies 30 streams, 13 with high matching scores. Less active showers pose identification challenges. The eom method consistently yields superior performance and agreement with CAMS. Although HDBSCAN requires careful selection of the minimum cluster size, it delivers robust, internally consistent clusters and outperforms the look-up table method in statistical coherence. These results underscore HDBSCAN's potential as a mathematically consistent alternative for meteoroid stream identification, although further validation is needed to assess physical validity.

astro-ph.EP↗

arXiv2025

Inferring Fireball Velocity Profiles and Characteristic Parameters of Meteoroids from Incomplete Datasets

Extracting additional information from old or incomplete fireball datasets remains a challenge. To address missing point-by-point observations, we introduce a method for estimating atmospheric flight parameters of meteoroids using metaheuristic optimization techniques. Using a fireball catalog from the European Fireball Network (EN), we reconstruct velocity profiles, meteoroid bulk densities, mass loss rates, and ablation and ballistic coefficients, based on the initial and terminal points' height, velocity, and mass with the purely dynamical $α$-$β$ model. Additionally, the method's performance is compared to the Meteorite Observation and Recovery Project (MORP) derived fits, confirming the robustness of the computed parameters for objects with asteroidal compositions. Our findings show that $α$-$β$ model yields parameters consistent with the photometric and dynamic mass estimates in the EN catalog for $P_E$ type I events. However, in the implementation proposed here, $α$-$β$ model encounters limitations in accurately representing the final deceleration of more fragile high-velocity meteoroids. This is likely due to challenges in representing complex fragmentation processes by fitting only two points, even when initial and terminal residuals are minimal. The retrieved $α$-$β$ distribution differs from the one derived from MORP data, likely due to the imposed mass constraints, which strongly influence the results, especially the bulk density. The results suggest that $P_E$ constraints reduce fitting accuracy (from 90% to 44%), while flexibility and freedom from assumptions improve $α$-$β$ performance. The method yields 26% of the events compatible with the catalog $P_E$ classification. Our approach is well-suited for interpreting historical or sparse datasets.

astro-ph.EP↗

arXiv2024

Evaluating potential landing sites for the Artemis III mission using a multi-criteria decision making approach

The selection of a landing site within the Artemis Exploration Zone (AEZ) involves multiple factors and presents a complex problem. This study evaluates potential landing sites for the Artemis III mission using a combination of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Multi-Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) methodologies, specifically the TOPSIS algorithm. By integrating topographic, illumination, and mineralogy data of the Moon, we assess 1247 locations that meet the Human Landing System (HLS) requirements within 13 candidate regions and Site 004 near the lunar south pole. Criteria considered include surface visibility, HLS-astronaut line of sight, Permanently Shadowed Regions (PSRs), sunlight exposure, direct communication with Earth, geological units, and mafic mineral abundance. Site DM2 (Nobile Rim 2), particularly the point at latitude 84°12'5.61" S (-84.20156°) and longitude 60°41'59.61" E (60.69989°), is the optimal location for landing. Sensitivity analysis confirms the robustness of our approach, validating the suitability of the best location despite the MCDM method employed and variations in criteria weightings to prioritize illumination and PSRs. This research demonstrates the applicability of GIS-MCDM techniques for lunar exploration and the potential benefits they can bring to the Artemis program.

astro-ph.EP↗

arXiv2024

Delivery of DART Impact Ejecta to Mars and Earth: Opportunity for Meteor Observations

NASA's DART and ESA's Hera missions offer a unique opportunity to investigate the delivery of impact ejecta to other celestial bodies. We performed ejecta dynamical simulations using 3 million particles categorized into three size populations (10 cm, 0.5 cm, and 30 $μ$m) and constrained by early post-impact LICIACube observations. The main simulation explored ejecta velocities ranging from 1 to 1,000 m/s, while a secondary simulation focused on faster ejecta with velocities from 1 to 2 km/s. We identified DART ejecta orbits compatible with the delivery of meteor-producing particles to Mars and Earth. Our results indicate the possibility of ejecta reaching the Mars Hill sphere in 13 years for launch velocities around 450 m/s, which is within the observed range. Some ejecta particles launched at 770 m/s could reach Mars's vicinity in 7 years. Faster ejecta resulted in a higher flux delivery towards Mars and particles impacting the Earth Hill sphere above 1.5 km/s. The delivery process is slightly sensitive to the initial observed cone range and driven by synodic periods. The launch locations for material delivery to Mars were predominantly northern the DART impact site, while they displayed a southwestern tendency for the Earth-Moon system. Larger particles exhibit a marginally greater likelihood of reaching Mars, while smaller particles favor delivery to Earth-Moon, although this effect is insignificant. To support observational campaigns for DART-created meteors, we provide comprehensive information on the encounter characteristics (orbital elements and radiants) and quantify the orbital decoherence degree of the released meteoroids.

astro-ph.EP↗

arXiv2024

The 18 May 2024 Iberian superbolide from a sunskirting orbit: USG space sensors and ground-based independent observations

On 18 May 2024, a superbolide traversed the western part of the Iberian Peninsula, culminating its flight over the Atlantic Ocean and generating significant media attention. This event was caused by a weak carbonaceous meteoroid of 1 m, entering the atmosphere at 40.4 km$\,$s$^{-1}$ with an average slope of 8.5$^\circ$. The luminous phase started at 133 km and ended at an altitude of 54 km. The meteoroid's heliocentric orbit had an inclination of 16.4$^\circ$, a high eccentricity of 0.952, a semi-major axis of 2.4 au, and a short perihelion distance of 0.12 au. The superbolide was recorded by multiple ground-based stations of the Spanish Meteor Network (SPMN) and the European Space Agency (ESA), as well as by the U.S. Government (USG) sensors from space. Due to the absence of observable deceleration, we successfully reconciled satellite radiometric data with a purely dynamic atmospheric flight model, constraining the meteoroid's mass and coherently fitting its velocity profile. Our analysis shows a good agreement with the radiant and velocity data reported by the Center for Near-Earth Object Studies (CNEOS), with a deviation of 0.56$^\circ$ and 0.1 km$\,$s$^{-1}$, respectively. The presence of detached fragments in the lower part of the luminous trajectory suggests that the meteoroid was a polymict carbonaceous chondrite, containing higher-strength macroscopic particles in its interior due to collisional gardening, or a thermally processed C-type asteroid. The orbital elements indicate that the most likely source is the Jupiter-Family Comet (JFC) region, aligning with the SOHO comet family, as its sunskirting orbit is decoupled from Jupiter. This event provides important information to characterize the disruption mechanism of near-Sun objects.

astro-ph.EP↗

arXiv2024

Statistical Equivalence of Metrics for Meteor Dynamical Association

We statistically evaluate and compare four orbital similarity criteria within five-dimensional parameter space ($D_{SH}$, $D_D$, $D_H$, and $\varrho_2$) to study dynamical associations using the already classified meteors (manually by a human) in CAMS database as a benchmark. In addition, we assess various distance metrics typically used in Machine Learning with two different vectors: ORBIT, grounded in heliocentric orbital elements, and GEO, predicated on geocentric observational parameters. Additionally, we compute the optimal cut-offs for all methods for distinguishing sporadic background events. Our findings demonstrate the superior performance of the sEuclidean metric in conjunction with the GEO vector. Within the scope of D-criteria, $D_{SH}$ emerged as the preeminent metric, closely followed by $\varrho_2$. $\varrho_2$ stands out as the most equivalence to the distance metrics when utilizing the GEO vector and the most compatible with GEO and ORBIT simultaneously, whereas $D_D$ aligns more closely when using the ORBIT vector. The stark contrast in $D_D$'s behavior compared to other D-criteria highlights potential inequivalence. Geocentric features provide a more robust basis than orbital elements for meteor dynamical association. Most distance metrics associated with the GEO vector surpass the D-criteria when differentiating the meteoroid background. Accuracy displayed a dependence on solar longitude with a pronounced decrease around 180$^\circ$ matching an apparent increase in the meteoroid background activity, tentatively associated with the transition from the Perseids to the Orionids. Considering lately identified meteor showers, $\sim$27\% of meteors in CAMS would have different associations. This work unveils that Machine Learning distance metrics can rival or even exceed the performance of tailored orbital similarity criteria for meteor dynamical association.

astro-ph.EP↗

arXiv2024

Mechanical Properties of Minerals in Lunar and HED Meteorites from Nanoindentation Testing: Implications for Space Mining

This study analyzes the mechanical and elemental properties of lunar meteorites DHOFAR 1084, JAH 838, NWA 11444, and HED meteorite NWA 6013. Utilizing microscale rock mechanics experiments, i.e., nanoindentation testing, this research reveals significant heterogeneity in both mechanical and elemental attributes across the minerals of the samples. Olivines, pyroxen, feldspar, and spinel demonstrate similar compositional and mechanical characteristics. Conversely, other silicate and oxide minerals display variations in their mechanical properties. Terrestrial olivines subjected to nanoindentation tests exhibit increased hardness and a higher Young's modulus compared to their lunar counterparts. A linear correlation is observed between the H/Er ratio and both plastic and elastic energies. Additionally, the alignment of mineral phases along a constant H/Er ratio suggests variations in local porosity. This study also highlights the need for further research focusing on porosity, phase insertions within the matrix, and structural orientations to refine our understanding of these mechanical characteristics. The findings have direct implications for in-situ resource utilization (ISRU) strategies and future state-of-the-art impact models. This comprehensive characterization serves as a foundational resource for future research efforts in space science and mining.

cond-mat.mtrl-sci↗

arXiv2024

Deciding technosignature search strategies: Multi-criteria fuzzy logic to find extraterrestrial intelligence

This study presents the implementation of Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) methodologies, particularly the fuzzy Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS), in prioritizing technosignatures (TSs) for the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI). By incorporating expert opinions and weighted criteria based on the established Axes of Merit, our analysis offers insights into the relative importance of various TSs. Notably, radio and optical communications are emphasized, in contrast to dark side illumination and starshades in transit. We introduce a new axis, Scale Sensitivity, designed to assess the variability of TS metrics. A sensitivity analysis confirms the robustness of our approach. Our findings, especially the highlighted significance of artifacts orbiting Earth, the Moon, or the Sun, indicate a need to broaden evaluative criteria within SETI research. This suggests an enhancement of the Axes of Merit, with a focus on addressing the plausibility of TSs. As the quest to resolve the profound question of our solitude in the cosmos continues, SETI efforts would benefit from exploring innovative prioritization methodologies that effectively quantify TS search strategies.

astro-ph.IM↗

arXiv2023

Oort cloud perturbations as a source of hyperbolic Earth impactors

The observation of interstellar objects 1I/'Oumuamua and 2I/Borisov suggests the existence of a larger population of smaller projectiles that impact our planet with unbound orbits. We analyze an asteroidal grazing meteor (FH1) recorded by the Finnish Fireball Network on October 23, 2022. FH1 displayed a likely hyperbolic orbit lying on the ecliptic plane with an estimated velocity excess of $\sim$0.7 km$\,$s$^{-1}$ at impact. FH1 may either be an interstellar object, indicating a high-strength bias in this population, or an Oort cloud object, which would reinforce migration-based solar system models. Furthermore, under the calculated uncertainties, FH1 could potentially be associated with the passage of Scholz's binary star system. Statistical evaluation of uncertainties in the CNEOS database and study of its hyperbolic fireballs reveals an anisotropic geocentric radiant distribution and low orbital inclinations, challenging the assumption of a randomly incoming interstellar population. Orbital integrations suggest that the event on March 9, 2017 (IM2) from CNEOS may have experienced gravitational perturbation during the Scholz fly-by, contingent upon velocity overestimation within the expected range. These findings suggest that apparent interstellar meteors may, in fact, be the result of accelerated meteoroid impacts caused by close encounters with massive objects within or passing through our solar system.

astro-ph.EP↗

arXiv2023

Deep machine learning for meteor monitoring: advances with transfer learning and gradient-weighted class activation mapping

In recent decades, the use of optical detection systems for meteor studies has increased dramatically, resulting in huge amounts of data being analyzed. Automated meteor detection tools are essential for studying the continuous meteoroid incoming flux, recovering fresh meteorites, and achieving a better understanding of our Solar System. Concerning meteor detection, distinguishing false positives between meteor and non-meteor images has traditionally been performed by hand, which is significantly time-consuming. To address this issue, we developed a fully automated pipeline that uses Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) to classify candidate meteor detections. Our new method is able to detect meteors even in images that contain static elements such as clouds, the Moon, and buildings. To accurately locate the meteor within each frame, we employ the Gradient-weighted Class Activation Mapping (Grad-CAM) technique. This method facilitates the identification of the region of interest by multiplying the activations from the last convolutional layer with the average of the gradients across the feature map of that layer. By combining these findings with the activation map derived from the first convolutional layer, we effectively pinpoint the most probable pixel location of the meteor. We trained and evaluated our model on a large dataset collected by the Spanish Meteor Network (SPMN) and achieved a precision of 98\%. Our new methodology presented here has the potential to reduce the workload of meteor scientists and station operators and improve the accuracy of meteor tracking and classification.

astro-ph.EP↗

arXiv2023

Identifying meteorite droppers among the population of bright 'sporadic' bolides imaged by the Spanish Meteor Network during the spring of 2022

The extraordinary weather conditions available between February and March 2022 over Spain have allowed us to analyze the brightest fireballs recorded by the monitoring stations of the Spanish Meteor Network (SPMN). We study the atmospheric flight of 15 large meteoroids to determine if they are meteorite dropper events to prepare campaigns to search for freshly fallen extraterrestrial material. We investigate their origins in the Solar System and their dynamic association with parent bodies and meteoroid streams. Employing our Python pipeline 3D-FireTOC, we reconstruct the atmospheric trajectory utilizing ground-based multi-station observations and compute the heliocentric orbit. In addition, we apply an ablation model to estimate the initial and terminal mass of each event. Using a dissimilarity criterion and propagating backward in time, we check the connection of these meteoroids with known complexes and near-Earth objects. We also calculate if the orbits are compatible with recent meteoroid ejections. We find that ~27% of these fireballs are dynamically associated with minor meteoroid streams and exhibit physical properties of cometary bodies, as well as one associated with a near-Earth asteroid. We identify two meteorite-producing events; however, the on-site search was unsuccessful. By considering that these fireballs are mostly produced by cm-sized rocks that might be the fragmentation product of much larger meteoroids, our findings emphasize the idea that the population of near-Earth objects is a source of near-term impact hazards, existing large Earth-colliding meteoroids in the known complexes.

astro-ph.EP↗