arXiv subjects

Emeline Bolmont

Publications and source records attributed to Emeline Bolmont.

At least 37 records · Page 2Linked to original sources

arXiv2023

Ground-breaking Exoplanet Science with the ANDES spectrograph at the ELT

In the past decade the study of exoplanet atmospheres at high-spectral resolution, via transmission/emission spectroscopy and cross-correlation techniques for atomic/molecular mapping, has become a powerful and consolidated methodology. The current limitation is the signal-to-noise ratio during a planetary transit. This limitation will be overcome by ANDES, an optical and near-infrared high-resolution spectrograph for the ELT. ANDES will be a powerful transformational instrument for exoplanet science. It will enable the study of giant planet atmospheres, allowing not only an exquisite determination of atmospheric composition, but also the study of isotopic compositions, dynamics and weather patterns, mapping the planetary atmospheres and probing atmospheric formation and evolution models. The unprecedented angular resolution of ANDES, will also allow us to explore the initial conditions in which planets form in proto-planetary disks. The main science case of ANDES, however, is the study of small, rocky exoplanet atmospheres, including the potential for biomarker detections, and the ability to reach this science case is driving its instrumental design. Here we discuss our simulations and the observing strategies to achieve this specific science goal. Since ANDES will be operational at the same time as NASA's JWST and ESA's ARIEL missions, it will provide enormous synergies in the characterization of planetary atmospheres at high and low spectral resolution. Moreover, ANDES will be able to probe for the first time the atmospheres of several giant and small planets in reflected light. In particular, we show how ANDES will be able to unlock the reflected light atmospheric signal of a golden sample of nearby non-transiting habitable zone earth-sized planets within a few tenths of nights, a scientific objective that no other currently approved astronomical facility will be able to reach.

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arXiv2023

Water Condensation Zones around Main Sequence Stars

Understanding the set of conditions that allow rocky planets to have liquid water on their surface -- in the form of lakes, seas or oceans -- is a major scientific step to determine the fraction of planets potentially suitable for the emergence and development of life as we know it on Earth. This effort is also necessary to define and refine the so-called "Habitable Zone" (HZ) in order to guide the search for exoplanets likely to harbor remotely detectable life forms. Until now, most numerical climate studies on this topic have focused on the conditions necessary to maintain oceans, but not to form them in the first place. Here we use the three-dimensional Generic Planetary Climate Model (PCM), historically known as the LMD Generic Global Climate Model (GCM), to simulate water-dominated planetary atmospheres around different types of Main-Sequence stars. The simulations are designed to reproduce the conditions of early ocean formation on rocky planets due to the condensation of the primordial water reservoir at the end of the magma ocean phase. We show that the incoming stellar radiation (ISR) required to form oceans by condensation is always drastically lower than that required to vaporize oceans. We introduce a Water Condensation Limit, which lies at significantly lower ISR than the inner edge of the HZ calculated with three-dimensional numerical climate simulations. This difference is due to a behavior change of water clouds, from low-altitude dayside convective clouds to high-altitude nightside stratospheric clouds. Finally, we calculated transit spectra, emission spectra and thermal phase curves of TRAPPIST-1b, c and d with H2O-rich atmospheres, and compared them to CO2 atmospheres and bare rock simulations. We show using these observables that JWST has the capability to probe steam atmospheres on low-mass planets, and could possibly test the existence of nightside water clouds.

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arXiv2023

Potential Atmospheric Compositions of TRAPPIST-1 c constrained by JWST/MIRI Observations at 15 $μ$m

The first JWST observations of TRAPPIST-1 c showed a secondary eclipse depth of 421+/-94 ppm at 15 um, which is consistent with a bare rock surface or a thin, O2-dominated, low CO2 atmosphere (Zieba et al. 2023). Here, we further explore potential atmospheres for TRAPPIST-1 c by comparing the observed secondary eclipse depth to synthetic spectra of a broader range of plausible environments. To self-consistently incorporate the impact of photochemistry and atmospheric composition on atmospheric thermal structure and predicted eclipse depth, we use a two-column climate model coupled to a photochemical model, and simulate O2-dominated, Venus-like, and steam atmospheres. We find that a broader suite of plausible atmospheric compositions are also consistent with the data. For lower pressure atmospheres (0.1 bar), our O2-CO2 atmospheres produce eclipse depths within 1$σ$ of the data, consistent with the modeling results of Zieba et al. (2023). However, for higher-pressure atmospheres, our models produce different temperature-pressure profiles and are less pessimistic, with 1-10 bar O2, 100 ppm CO2 models within 2.0-2.2$σ$ of the measured secondary eclipse depth, and up to 0.5% CO2 within 2.9$σ$. Venus-like atmospheres are still unlikely. For thin O2 atmospheres of 0.1 bar with a low abundance of CO2 ($\sim$100 ppm), up to 10% water vapor can be present and still provide an eclipse depth within 1$σ$ of the data. We compared the TRAPPIST-1 c data to modeled steam atmospheres of $\leq$ 3 bar, which are 1.7-1.8$σ$ from the data and not conclusively ruled out. More data will be required to discriminate between possible atmospheres, or to more definitively support the bare rock hypothesis.

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arXiv2023

No thick carbon dioxide atmosphere on the rocky exoplanet TRAPPIST-1 c

Seven rocky planets orbit the nearby dwarf star TRAPPIST-1, providing a unique opportunity to search for atmospheres on small planets outside the Solar System (Gillon et al., 2017). Thanks to the recent launch of JWST, possible atmospheric constituents such as carbon dioxide (CO2) are now detectable (Morley et al., 2017, Lincowski et al., 2018}. Recent JWST observations of the innermost planet TRAPPIST-1 b showed that it is most probably a bare rock without any CO2 in its atmosphere (Greene et al., 2023). Here we report the detection of thermal emission from the dayside of TRAPPIST-1 c with the Mid-Infrared Instrument (MIRI) on JWST at 15 micron. We measure a planet-to-star flux ratio of fp/fs = 421 +/- 94 parts per million (ppm) which corresponds to an inferred dayside brightness temperature of 380 +/- 31 K. This high dayside temperature disfavours a thick, CO2-rich atmosphere on the planet. The data rule out cloud-free O2/CO2 mixtures with surface pressures ranging from 10 bar (with 10 ppm CO2) to 0.1 bar (pure CO2). A Venus-analogue atmosphere with sulfuric acid clouds is also disfavoured at 2.6 sigma confidence. Thinner atmospheres or bare-rock surfaces are consistent with our measured planet-to-star flux ratio. The absence of a thick, CO2-rich atmosphere on TRAPPIST-1 c suggests a relatively volatile-poor formation history, with less than 9.5 +7.5 -2.3 Earth oceans of water. If all planets in the system formed in the same way, this would indicate a limited reservoir of volatiles for the potentially habitable planets in the system.

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arXiv2021

An upper limit on late accretion and water delivery in the Trappist-1 exoplanet system

The Trappist-1 system contains seven roughly Earth-sized planets locked in a multi-resonant orbital configuration, which has enabled precise measurements of the planets' masses and constrained their compositions. Here we use the system's fragile orbital structure to place robust upper limits on the planets' bombardment histories. We use N-body simulations to show how perturbations from additional objects can break the multi-resonant configuration by either triggering dynamical instability or simply removing the planets from resonance. The planets cannot have interacted with more than ${\sim 5\%}$ of an Earth mass (${M_\oplus}$) in planetesimals -- or a single rogue planet more massive than Earth's Moon -- without disrupting their resonant orbital structure. This implies an upper limit of ${10^{-4}}$ to ${10^{-2} M_\oplus}$ of late accretion on each planet since the dispersal of the system's gaseous disk. This is comparable to or less than the late accretion on Earth after the Moon-forming impact, and demonstrates that the Trappist-1 planets' growth was complete in just a few million years, roughly an order of magnitude faster than Earth's. Our results imply that any large water reservoirs on the Trappist-1 planets must have been incorporated during their formation in the gaseous disk.

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arXiv2021

Day-night cloud asymmetry prevents early oceans on Venus but not on Earth

Earth has had oceans for nearly four billion years and Mars had lakes and rivers 3.5-3.8 billion years ago. However, it is still unknown whether water has ever condensed on the surface of Venus because the planet - now completely dry - has undergone global resurfacing events that obscure most of its history. The conditions required for water to have initially condensed on the surface of Solar System terrestrial planets are highly uncertain, as they have so far only been studied with one-dimensional numerical climate models that cannot account for the effects of atmospheric circulation and clouds, which are key climate stabilizers. Here we show using three-dimensional global climate model simulations of early Venus and Earth that water clouds - which preferentially form on the nightside, owing to the strong subsolar water vapour absorption - have a strong net warming effect that inhibits surface water condensation even at modest insolations (down to 325 W/m2, that is, 0.95 times the Earth solar constant). This shows that water never condensed and that, consequently, oceans never formed on the surface of Venus. Furthermore, this shows that the formation of Earth's oceans required much lower insolation than today, which was made possible by the faint young Sun. This also implies the existence of another stability state for present-day Earth: the 'Steam Earth', with all the water from the oceans evaporated into the atmosphere.

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arXiv2021

On the influence of equilibrium tides on transit-timing variations of close-in super-Earths. I. Application to single-planet systems and the case of K2-265 b

In this work, we investigate the influence of planetary tidal interactions on the transit-timing variations of short-period low-mass rocky exoplanets. For such purpose, we employ the recently-developed creep tide theory to compute tidally-induced TTVs. We implement the creep tide in the recently-developed Posidonius N-body code, thus allowing for a high-precision evolution of the coupled spin-orbit dynamics of planetary systems. As a working example for the analyses of tidally-induced TTVs, we apply our version of the code to the K2-265 b planet. We analyse the dependence of tidally-induced TTVs with the planetary rotation rate, uniform viscosity coefficient and eccentricity. Our results show that the tidally-induced TTVs are more significant in the case where the planet is trapped in non-synchronous spin-orbit resonances, in particular the 3/2 and 2/1 spin-orbit resonant states. An analysis of the TTVs induced separately by apsidal precession and tidally-induced orbital decay has allowed for the conclusion that the latter effect is much more efficient at causing high-amplitude TTVs than the former effect by 2 - 3 orders of magnitude. We compare our findings for the tidally-induced TTVs obtained with Posidonius with analytical formulations for the transit timings used in previous works, and verified that the results for the TTVs coming from Posidonius are in excellent agreement with the analytical formulations. These results show that the new version of Posidonius containing the creep tide theory implementation can be used to study more complex cases in the future. For instance, the code can be used to study multiplanetary systems, in which case planet-planet gravitational perturbations must be taken into account additionally to tidal interactions to obtain the TTVs.

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arXiv2021

TRAPPIST Habitable Atmosphere Intercomparison (THAI) workshop report

The era of atmospheric characterization of terrestrial exoplanets is just around the corner. Modeling prior to observations is crucial in order to predict the observational challenges and to prepare for the data interpretation. This paper presents the report of the TRAPPIST Habitable Atmosphere Intercomparison (THAI) workshop (14-16 September 2020). A review of the climate models and parameterizations of the atmospheric processes on terrestrial exoplanets, model advancements and limitations, as well as direction for future model development was discussed. We hope that this report will be used as a roadmap for future numerical simulations of exoplanet atmospheres and maintaining strong connections to the astronomical community.

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arXiv2021

Refining the transit timing and photometric analysis of TRAPPIST-1: Masses, radii, densities, dynamics, and ephemerides

We have collected transit times for the TRAPPIST-1 system with the Spitzer Space Telescope over four years. We add to these ground-based, HST and K2 transit time measurements, and revisit an N-body dynamical analysis of the seven-planet system using our complete set of times from which we refine the mass ratios of the planets to the star. We next carry out a photodynamical analysis of the Spitzer light curves to derive the density of the host star and the planet densities. We find that all seven planets' densities may be described with a single rocky mass-radius relation which is depleted in iron relative to Earth, with Fe 21 wt% versus 32 wt% for Earth, and otherwise Earth-like in composition. Alternatively, the planets may have an Earth-like composition, but enhanced in light elements, such as a surface water layer or a core-free structure with oxidized iron in the mantle. We measure planet masses to a precision of 3-5%, equivalent to a radial-velocity (RV) precision of 2.5 cm/sec, or two orders of magnitude more precise than current RV capabilities. We find the eccentricities of the planets are very small; the orbits are extremely coplanar; and the system is stable on 10 Myr timescales. We find evidence of infrequent timing outliers which we cannot explain with an eighth planet; we instead account for the outliers using a robust likelihood function. We forecast JWST timing observations, and speculate on possible implications of the planet densities for the formation, migration and evolution of the planet system.

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arXiv2020

Solid tidal friction in multi-layer planets: Application to Earth, Venus, a Super Earth and the TRAPPIST-1 planets. Can a multi-layer planet be approximated as a homogeneous planet?

With the discovery of TRAPPIST-1 and its seven planets within 0.06 au, the correct treatment of tidal interactions is becoming necessary. The eccentricity, rotation, and obliquity of the planets of TRAPPIST-1 are indeed the result of tidal evolution over the lifetime of the system. Tidal interactions can also lead to tidal heating in the interior of the planets, which can then be responsible for volcanism and/or surface deformation. In the majority of studies to estimate the rotation of close-in planets or their tidal heating, the planets are considered as homogeneous bodies and their rheology is often taken to be a Maxwell rheology. We investigate here the impact of considering a multi-layer structure and an Andrade rheology on the way planets dissipate tidal energy as a function of the excitation frequency. We use an internal structure model, which provides the radial profile of structural and rheological quantities to compute the tidal response of multi-layer bodies. We then compare the outcome to the dissipation of a homogeneous planet. We find that for purely rocky bodies, it is possible to approximate the response of a multi-layer planet by that of a homogeneous planet. However, using average profiles of shear modulus and viscosity to compute the homogeneous planet response leads to an overestimation of the averaged dissipation. We provide fitted values of shear modulus and viscosity to be able to reproduce the response of various types of rocky planets. However, we find that if the planet has an icy layer, its tidal response can no longer be approximated by a homogeneous body because of the very different properties of the icy layers, which lead to a second dissipation peak at higher frequencies. We also compute the tidal heating profiles for the outer TRAPPIST-1 planets (e to h).

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arXiv2020

A review of possible planetary atmospheres in the TRAPPIST-1 system

TRAPPIST-1 is a fantastic nearby (~39.14 light years) planetary system made of at least seven transiting terrestrial-size, terrestrial-mass planets all receiving a moderate amount of irradiation. To date, this is the most observationally favourable system of potentially habitable planets. Since the announcement of the discovery of TRAPPIST-1 planets in 2016, a growing number of techniques and approaches have been used and proposed to reveal its true nature. Here we have compiled a state-of-the-art overview of all the observational and theoretical constraints that have been obtained so far using these techniques and approaches. The goal is to get a better understanding of whether or not TRAPPIST-1 planets can have atmospheres, and if so, what they are made of. For this, we surveyed the literature on TRAPPIST-1 about topics as broad as irradiation environment, orbital architecture, transit observations, density measurements, stellar contamination, and numerical climate and escape models. Each of these topics adds a brick to our understanding of the likely atmospheres of the seven planets. We show that (i) HST transit observations, (ii) density measurements, (iii) atmospheric escape modelling, and (iv) gas accretion modelling altogether offer solid evidence against the presence of H2-dominated atmospheres around TRAPPIST-1 planets. This means they likely have either (i) a high molecular weight atmosphere or (ii) no atmosphere at all. There are several key challenges ahead to characterize the bulk compositions of the atmospheres (if present) of TRAPPIST-1 planets. The main one so far is characterizing and correcting for the effects of stellar contamination. Fortunately, a new wave of observations with the James Webb Space Telescope and near-infrared high-resolution ground-based spectrographs on very large telescopes will bring significant advances in the coming decade.

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arXiv2020

Revised mass-radius relationships for water-rich rocky planets more irradiated than the runaway greenhouse limit

Mass-radius relationships for water-rich rocky planets are usually calculated assuming most water is present in condensed (either liquid or solid) form. Planet density estimates are then compared to these mass-radius relationships, even when these planets are more irradiated than the runaway greenhouse irradiation limit (around 1.1~times the insolation at Earth for planets orbiting a Sun-like star), for which water has been shown to be unstable in condensed form and would instead form a thick H2O-dominated atmosphere. Here we use the LMD Generic numerical climate model to derive new mass-radius relationships appropriate for water-rich rocky planets that are more irradiated than the runaway greenhouse irradiation limit, meaning planets endowed with a steam, water-dominated atmosphere. For a given water-to-rock mass ratio, these new mass-radius relationships lead to planet bulk densities much lower than calculated when water is assumed to be in condensed form. In other words, using traditional mass-radius relationships for planets that are more irradiated than the runaway greenhouse irradiation limit tends to dramatically overestimate -- possibly by several orders of magnitude -- their bulk water content. In particular, this result applies to TRAPPIST-1 b, c, and d, which can accommodate a water mass fraction of at most 2, 0.3 and 0.08 %, respectively, assuming planetary core with a terrestrial composition. In addition, we show that significant changes of mass-radius relationships (between planets less and more irradiated than the runaway greenhouse limit) can be used to remove bulk composition degeneracies in multiplanetary systems such as TRAPPIST-1. Finally, we provide an empirical formula for the H2O steam atmosphere thickness which can be used to construct mass-radius relationships for any water-rich, rocky planet more irradiated than the runaway greenhouse irradiation threshold.

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arXiv2020

Evidence for Spin-orbit Alignment in the TRAPPIST-1 System

In an effort to measure the Rossiter-McLaughlin effect for the TRAPPIST-1 system, we performed high-resolution spectroscopy during transits of planets e, f, and b. The spectra were obtained with the InfraRed Doppler spectrograph on the Subaru 8.2-m telescope, and were supplemented with simultaneous photometry obtained with a 1-m telescope of the Las Cumbres Observatory Global Telescope. By analyzing the anomalous radial velocities, we found the projected stellar obliquity to be $λ=1\pm 28$ degrees under the assumption that the three planets have coplanar orbits, although we caution that the radial-velocity data show correlated noise of unknown origin. We also sought evidence for the expected deformations of the stellar absorption lines, and thereby detected the "Doppler shadow" of planet b with a false alarm probability of $1.7\,\%$. The joint analysis of the observed residual cross-correlation map including the three transits gave $λ=19_{-15}^{+13}$ degrees. These results indicate that the the TRAPPIST-1 star is not strongly misaligned with the common orbital plane of the planets, although further observations are encouraged to verify this conclusion.

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arXiv2020

Could star-planet magnetic interactions lead to planet migration and influence stellar rotation ?

The distribution of hot Jupiters, for which star-planet interactions can be significant, questions the evolution of exosystems. We aim to follow the orbital evolution of a planet along the rotational and structural evolution of the host star by taking into account the coupled effects of tidal and magnetic torques from ab initio prescriptions. It allows us to better understand the evolution of star-planet systems and to explain some properties of the distribution of observed close-in planets. To this end we use a numerical model of a coplanar circular star-planet system taking into account stellar structural changes, wind braking and star-planet interactions, called ESPEM (Benbakoura et al. 2019). We find that depending on the initial configuration of the system, magnetic effects can dominate tidal effects during the various phases of the evolution, leading to an important migration of the planet and to significant changes on the rotational evolution of the star. Both kinds of interactions thus have to be taken into account to predict the evolution of compact star-planet systems.

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arXiv2020

On the impact of tides on the transit-timing fits to the TRAPPIST-1 system

Transit Timing Variations, or TTVs, can be a very efficient way of constraining masses and eccentricities of multi-planet systems. Recent measurements of the TTVs of TRAPPIST-1 led to an estimate of the masses of the planets, enabling an estimate of their densities. A recent TTV analysis using data obtained in the past two years yields a 34% and 13% increase in mass for TRAPPIST-1b and c, respectively. In most studies to date, a Newtonian N-body model is used to fit the masses of the planets, while sometimes general relativity is accounted for. Using the Posidonius N-body code, we show that in the case of the TRAPPIST-1 system, non-Newtonian effects might be also relevant to correctly model the dynamics of the system and the resulting TTVs. In particular, using standard values of the tidal Love number $k_2$ (accounting for the tidal deformation) and the fluid Love number $k_{2f}$ (accounting for the rotational flattening) leads to differences in the TTVs of TRAPPIST-1b and c similar to the differences caused by general relativity. We also show that relaxing the values of tidal Love number $k_2$ and the fluid Love number $k_{2f}$ can lead to TTVs which differ by as much as a few 10~s on a $3-4$-year timescale, which is a potentially observable level. The high values of the Love numbers needed to reach observable levels for the TTVs could be achieved for planets with a liquid ocean, which, if detected, might then be interpreted as a sign that TRAPPIST-1b and TRAPPIST-1c could have a liquid magma ocean. For TRAPPIST-1 and similar systems, the models to fit the TTVs should potentially account for general relativity, for the tidal deformation of the planets, for the rotational deformation of the planets and, to a lesser extent, for the rotational deformation of the star, which would add up to 7x2+1 = 15 additional free parameters in the case of TRAPPIST-1.

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arXiv2019

Final spin states of eccentric ocean planets

Eccentricity tides generate a torque that can drive an ocean planet towards asynchronous rotation states of equilibrium when enhanced by resonances associated with the oceanic tidal modes. We investigate the impact of eccentricity tides on the rotation of rocky planets hosting a thin uniform ocean and orbiting cool dwarf stars such as TRAPPIST-1, with orbital periods ~1-10 days. Combining the linear theory of oceanic tides in the shallow water approximation with the Andrade model for the solid part of the planet, we develop a global model including the coupling effects of ocean loading, self-attraction, and deformation of the solid regions. We derive from this model analytic solutions for the tidal Love numbers and torque exerted on the planet. These solutions are used with realistic values of parameters provided by advanced models of the internal structure and tidal oscillations of solid bodies to explore the parameter space both analytically and numerically. Our model allows us to fully characterise the frequency-resonant tidal response of the planet, and particularly the features of resonances associated with the oceanic tidal modes (eigenfrequencies, resulting maxima of the tidal torque and Love numbers) as functions of the planet parameters (mass, radius, Andrade parameters, ocean depth and Rayleigh drag frequency). Resonances associated with the oceanic tide decrease the critical eccentricity beyond which asynchronous rotation states distinct from the usual spin-orbit resonances can exist. We provide an estimation and scaling laws for this critical eccentricity, which is found to be lowered by roughly one order of magnitude, switching from ~0.3 to ~0.06 in typical cases and to ~0.01 in extremal ones.

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arXiv2019

The runaway greenhouse radius inflation effect - An observational diagnostic to probe water on Earth-size planets and test the Habitable Zone concept

Planets similar to Earth - but slightly more irradiated - are expected to enter into a runaway greenhouse state, where all surface water rapidly evaporates, forming an optically thick H2O-dominated atmosphere. For Earth, this extreme climate transition is thought to occur for a ~6% increase only of the solar luminosity, though the exact limit at which the transition would occur is still a highly debated topic. In general, the runaway greenhouse is believed to be a fundamental process in the evolution of Earth-size, temperate planets. Using 1-D radiative-convective climate calculations accounting for thick, hot water vapour-dominated atmospheres, we evaluate the transit atmospheric thickness of a post-runaway greenhouse atmosphere, and find that it could possibly reach over a thousand kilometers (i.e., a few tens of % of Earth radius). This abrupt radius inflation - resulting from the runaway-greenhouse-induced transition - could be detected statistically by ongoing and upcoming space missions such as TESS, CHEOPS and PLATO (combined with precise radial velocity mass measurements with ground-based spectrographs such as ESPRESSO, CARMENES or SPIRou), or even in particular cases in multiplanetary systems such as TRAPPIST-1 (when masses and radii will be known with good enough precision). This result provides the community with an observational test of (1) the concept of runaway greenhouse, that defines the inner edge of the traditional Habitable Zone, and the exact limit of the runaway greenhouse transition. In particular, this could provide an empirical measurement of the irradiation at which Earth analogs transition from a temperate to a runaway greenhouse climate state. This astronomical measurement would make it possible to statistically estimate how close Earth is from the runaway greenhouse. (2) the presence (and statistical abundance) of water in temperate, Earth-size exoplanets.

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arXiv2019

Correction to: Effect of the rotation and tidal dissipation history of stars on the evolution of close-in planets

This is an erratum for the publication Bolmont & Mathis 2016 (Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy, 126, 275-296, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10569-016-9690-3). There was a small mistake for the spin integration of our code which we corrected and we take advantage of this erratum to investigate a bit further the influence of a planet on the spin of its host star.

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