arXiv subjects

Hailong Yuan

Publications and source records attributed to Hailong Yuan.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

arXiv2026

Discovery and Characterization of White Dwarf-FGK Main-Sequence Binaries within the Optical Main-Sequence Locus

White dwarf main-sequence (WDMS) binaries provide important laboratories for studying binary evolution and the formation of low-mass white dwarfs. In this work, we identify 654 reliable WDMS candidates with FGK-type companions from an initial set of 772 ultraviolet-excess sources, selected using stellar atmospheric parameters from LAMOST spectroscopy and subsequently refined with \textit{Gaia} DR3 astrometry and photometry together with ultraviolet data from \textit{GALEX}. Candidates were selected based on ultraviolet excess relative to the \textit{Gaia} main-sequence locus and refined using isochrone constraints to exclude systems inconsistent with MS companions. Binary spectral energy distribution fitting yields effective temperatures and radii for both components, as well as distance and extinction estimates. The MS companions are dominated by G-type stars ($\sim52\%$), with comparable fractions of F- and K-type companions, and no A-type primaries. Using white-dwarf evolutionary cooling models, we find that the WD components are predominantly low-mass ($M_{\rm WD}\,\sim\,0.2\text{--}0.4\,M_\odot$), including a substantial population of extremely low-mass ($<0.3\,M_\odot$) WDs likely produced through binary interaction. The WDs are generally hot ($\sim1.5\times10^4\,\mathrm{K}$), consistent with the ultraviolet selection bias favoring luminous, large-radius WDs. Multi-epoch LAMOST radial velocities show larger amplitudes than those of a comparison sample of MS stars, supporting the close-binary nature of these systems. Although subject to strong selection effects, the catalog offers a clean and well-characterized sample of FGK+WD binaries.

astro-ph.SR↗

arXiv2026

Revisiting Ca II Activity Indices in FGK Stars: Systematic Biases in Infrared Triplet Measurements

Synthetic-template subtraction is widely used to measure chromospheric activity in large spectroscopic surveys. However, many solar-like FGK stars show systematically negative Ca II infrared triplet (IRT) residual indices, implying that the observed line cores are deeper than those predicted by parameter-matched templates. We investigate this effect using solar-like stars from LAMOST DR9, MaStar, and XSL DR3, measuring activity indices (R+) for both the Ca II H&K and IRT lines in a uniform framework. We find that observational effects, including atmospheric-parameter offsets, treatment of the instrumental line-spread function, and propagated measurement uncertainties, contribute to scatter but do not explain the systematic negative bias in R+_IRT. The results instead suggest that the negative bias most likely arises because photospheric templates underestimate the depth of the IRT cores, likely owing to missing chromospheric structure and, to a lesser extent, NLTE effects. An empirical increase in the adopted microturbulent velocity deepens the synthetic IRT cores and partially mitigates the negative offset. In addition, R+ values derived from different synthesis configurations show systematic offsets but generally preserve strong linear correlations, indicating that they can be cross-calibrated. These results clarify the origin of negative Ca II IRT residual indices and help interpret template-dependent systematics in chromospheric activity measurements based on synthetic-template subtraction.

astro-ph.SR↗

arXiv2026

Characterizing the Instrumental Profile of LAMOST

The instrumental profile (IP) of a telescope is of great significance for spectroscopic analyses, especially for wavelength calibration and stellar parameter measurements. The Large Sky Area Multi-Object Fiber Spectroscopic Telescope (LAMOST) employs arc lamps for wavelength calibration. These lamps produce sharp emission lines with known wavelengths, and the observed arc lamp spectra can well characterize the IP. However, IPs are influenced by multiple factors, making them difficult to model accurately with traditional methods. Neural networks, which can automatically capture complex patterns and nonlinear features in data, provide a promising approach for high-precision IP measurement. We therefore construct a multi-layer perceptron (MLP) based on The Payne neural network to derive IPs for LAMOST. After training, the model can retrieve the IP for any fiber, at any wavelength, and at any time. We then apply the derived IP to stellar radial velocity (RV) measurements and analyze the impact of different IP center localization methods on the results. Finally, the dispersion of the measured RVs is reduced by approximately 3 km/s. This improvement will facilitate the search for long-period binary stars via RV variations.

astro-ph.IM↗

arXiv2025

The survey of DA double white dwarf candidates based on DESI EDR

Mergers of double white dwarfs are considered significant potential progenitors of type Ia supernovae. Although there is no direct observational evidence to definitively determine the formation pathways of SNe Ia, studying the physical properties of DWDs provides valuable insights into their evolutionary processes, interaction modes, and merger mechanisms, which are essential for understanding the explosion mechanisms of SNe Ia. This study aims to identify DWD candidates through spectroscopic radial velocity measurements and analyze their physical properties based on DESI EDR. We crossmatched DESI EDR with the Gaia EDR3 to select DA. We measured the spectroscopic RV using the cross-correlation function and assessed the significance of RV variability using a chi-squared-based variability method. Spectroscopic Teff and log g were derived by fitting the hydrogen Balmer lines, with 3D convection corrections applied. Orbital periods and semi-amplitudes were obtained through a Lomb-Scargle analysis of the RV time series. We interpolated WD cooling models and applied Monte Carlo simulations to calculate masses, cooling ages, radii, and their associated uncertainties. We also analyzed their photometric and spectral energy distribution properties to derive photometric temperatures and radii, which were then compared with the corresponding spectroscopic parameters. We identified 33 DA DWD candidates with significant RV variability, including 28 new discoveries. Among them, we found an extremely low-mass DWD candidate and a potential triple system. For these candidates, we measured key physical parameters including Teff, log g, mass, and radius, and estimated the orbital periods based on the available data. Of these, 17 candidates exhibit relatively clear periodic RV variability in the current data, and we report their best-fitting periods and RV semi-amplitudes.

astro-ph.SR↗

arXiv2025

Revisiting CMSSM with Non-Universal Gaugino Masses under Current Constraints

To address the longstanding tension between the Constrained Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model (CMSSM) and recent experimental data, we investigate non-universal gaugino masses within an SU(5) Grand Unified Theory (GUT) framework, focusing on the $\tilde{g}$-SUGRA scenario where $\lvert M_{3} \rvert \gg \lvert M_{1} \rvert, \lvert M_{2} \rvert$. This hierarchy enables a heavier gluino, thereby evading current experimental bounds on supersymmetric particles. Our analysis reveals that precise Higgs measurements place stringent constraints on the model, requiring $\tanβ\gtrsim 5$ and $ M_{0} \gtrsim 20 \, \tanβ\,\text{GeV}$. Although the $\tilde{g}$-SUGRA scenario can help reconcile the persistent $(g-2)_μ$ anomaly, the Higgs constraints significantly restrict its parameter space, making a large contribution to $(g-2)_μ$ challenging. We also assess the discovery prospects in upcoming dark matter direct detection experiments, including PandaX-xT (200 t.y.), LZ (projected), and XENONnT (20 t.y.), which may not fully cover the viable parameter space. In contrast, future collider experiments$-$such as the High-Luminosity LHC at $3\,\mathrm{ab}^{-1}$ and $\mathrm{CLIC}_{1500}$ at $2.5\,\mathrm{ab}^{-1}$$-$can comprehensively probe the remaining regions. These findings highlight $\tilde{g}$-SUGRA as a promising solution to the CMSSM tension and offer clear, testable predictions for upcoming collider searches.

hep-ph↗

arXiv2025

The Nature of Classical Be Star Outbursts: A Multi-Epoch Study of the Be system EPIC 202060631

Through cross-matching the ASASSN photometric light curves and LAMOST spectroscopic observations, we serendipitously captured a rare major outburst event from the Be star EPIC 202060631, lasting over 1000 days. Fortuitously, the LAMOST ow-resolution spectra densely covered the flux rising stage with 20 epochs, while an additional 7 low-resolution and 11 medium esolution spectra monitored the subsequent decay phase. Moreover, this target was observed by Kepler telescope in its K2 mission when before the outburst and by TESS telescope while after returning to quiescence. Analyses of these datasets reveal pulsation behavior and mode amplitudes, indications of radial and tangential motions in the photosphere, and clear evidence of mass ejection and circumstellar disk formation. We modeled the central star using the BRUCE04 code and analyzed the disk structure using HDUST. Our results suggest episodic mass injection events from the central star triggered the disk buildup and carried imprints of the changing stellar pulsations. This study offers unique insights into the connections between photospheric activities, disk evolution, and stellar rotation during Be star outbursts.

astro-ph.SR↗

arXiv2025

LAMOST J101356.33+272410.7: A Detached White Dwarf-Main-sequence Binary with a Massive White Dwarf Within the Period Gap

We report the analysis of the detached eclipsing spectroscopic binary system LAMOST J101356.33+272410.7, which features a massive white dwarf. Using LAMOST and SDSS spectra, we determined the stellar parameters and radial velocities of both components. SED fitting of photometric data from GALEX, 2MASS, and Pan-STARRS1 yielded the effective temperatures and photometric radii. Eclipsing analysis of high-speed photometric data from the Liverpool Telescope provided orbital inclination, masses, radii, and related physical parameters. The white dwarf in this system has a mass of $1.05 \pm 0.09 \, M_\odot$ and a radius of $0.0090 \pm 0.0008 \, R_\odot$, while the main-sequence star has a mass of $0.299 \pm 0.045 \, M_\odot$ and a radius of $0.286 \pm 0.018 \, R_\odot$. Emission lines observed in the spectra indicate the likely presence of stellar magnetic activity in this system. The relatively cool temperature of the white dwarf suggests that the system could be a post-common-envelope binary (PCEB) that has not undergone mass transfer, while the presence of a massive white dwarf indicates that the system might also represent a detached cataclysmic variable (dCV) crossing the period gap. We suggest that the system is more likely to be a PCEB, and it is predicted to evolve into a cataclysmic variable and begin mass transfer in approximately 0.27 Gyr.

astro-ph.SR↗

arXiv2024

LAMOST J171013+532646: a detached short-period non-eclipsing hot subdwarf + white dwarf binary

We present an analysis of LAMOST J171013.211+532646.04 (hereafter J1710), a binary system comprising a hot subdwarf B star (sdB) and a white dwarf (WD) companion. Multi-epoch spectroscopy reveals an orbital period of 109.20279 minutes, consistent with TESS and ZTF photometric data, marking it as the sixth detached system known to harbor a WD companion with a period less than two hours. J1710 is remarkably close to Earth, situated at a distance of only $350.68^{+4.20}_{-4.21} \, \mathrm{pc}$, with a GAIA G-band magnitude of 12.59, rendering it conducive for continuous observations. The spectral temperature is around 25164 K, in agreement with SED fitting results ($25301^{+839}_{-743} \, \mathrm{K}$). The TESS light curve displays ellipsoidal variation and Doppler beaming without eclipsing features. Through fitting the TESS light curve using the Wilson-Devinney code, we determined the masses for the sdB ($M_1 = 0.44^{+0.06}_{-0.07} \, M_{\odot}$) and the compact object ($M_2 = 0.54^{+0.10}_{-0.07} \, M_{\odot}$), with the compact object likely being a WD. Furthermore, MESA models suggest that the sdB, with a helium core mass of 0.431 $M_{\odot}$ and a hydrogen envelope mass of $1.3 \times 10^{-3}\, M_{\odot}$, is in the early helium main-sequence phase. The MESA binary evolution shows that the J1710 system is expected to evolve into a double white dwarf system, making it an important source of low-frequency gravitational waves.

astro-ph.SR↗

arXiv2023

Near-Infrared Ca II Triplet As An Stellar Activity Indicator: Library and Comparative Study

We have established and released a new stellar index library of the Ca II Triplet, which serves as an indicator for characterizing the chromospheric activity of stars. The library is based on data from the Large Sky Area Multi-Object Fiber Spectroscopic Telescope (LAMOST) Low-Resolution Spectroscopic Survey (LRS) Data Release 9 (DR9). To better reflect the chromospheric activity of stars, we have defined new indices $R$ and $R^{+}$. The library includes measurements of $R$ and $R^{+}$ for each Ca II infrared triplet (IRT) from 699,348 spectra of 562,863 F, G and K-type solar-like stars with Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) higher than 100, as well as the stellar atmospheric parameters and basic information inherited from the LAMOST LRS Catalog. We compared the differences between the 3 individual index of the Ca II Triplet and also conducted a comparative analysis of $R^{+}_{\lambda8542}$ to the Ca II H&K $S$ and $R^+_{HK}$ index database. We find the fraction of low active stars decreases with $T_{eff}$ and the fraction of high active first decrease with decreasing temperature and turn to increase with decreasing temperature at 5800K. We also find a significant fraction of stars that show high activity index in both Ca II H&K and IRT are binaries with low activity, some of them could be discriminated in Ca II H&K $S$ index and $R^{+}_{\lambda8542}$ space. This newly stellar library serves as a valuable resource for studying chromospheric activity in stars and can be used to improve our comprehension of stellar magnetic activity and other astrophysical phenomena.

astro-ph.SR↗

arXiv2023

Wide binaries with white dwarf or neutron star companions discovered from Gaia DR3 and LAMOST

Gaia DR3 mission has identified and provided about 440,000 binary systems with orbital solutions, offering a valuable resource for searching binaries including a compact component. By combining the Gaia DR3 data with radial velocities (RVs) from the LAMOST spectroscopic survey, we identify three wide binaries possibly containing a compact object. For two of these sources with a main-sequence companion, no obvious excess is observed in the blue/red band of the Gaia DR3 XP spectra, and the LAMOST medium-resolution spectra exhibit clear single-lined features. The absence of an additional component from spectral disentangling analysis further suggests the presence of compact objects within these systems. On the other hand, the visible star of the third source is a stripped giant star. In contrast to most binaries including stripped stars, no emission line is detected in the optical spectra. The unseen star could potentially be a massive white dwarf or neutron star, but the possibility of an F-type dwarf star scenario cannot be ruled out. An examination of about ten binaries containing white dwarfs or neutron stars using both kinematic and chemical methods suggest most of these systems are located in the thin disk of the Milky Way.

astro-ph.SR↗

arXiv2023

Orbital parameters for an ELM white dwarf with a white dwarf companion: LAMOST J033847.06+413424.2

Double white dwarf systems are of great astrophysical importance in the field of gravitational wave and Type Ia supernova. While the binary fraction of CO core white dwarf is about a few percents, the extremely low mass white dwarfs are all thought to be within binary systems. In this work, we report the orbital solution of a double degenerate system: J033847.06+413424.24, an extremely low mass He core white dwarf orbiting a CO core white dwarf. With LAMOST and P200, time domain spectroscopic observations have been made and spectral atmosphere parameters are estimated to be $T_{\rm eff}\sim22500$ K and log $g\sim5.6$ dex. Combining Gaia parallax, 3D extinction, and evolution tracks, we estimate a radius of $\sim0.12$ $R_{\odot}$ and a mass of $\sim0.22$ $M_{\odot}$. With the 37 single exposure spectra, the radial velocities are measured and the orbital parameters are estimated to be $P=0.1253132(1)$ days, $K1=289\pm4$ km/s and $V_{sys}=-41\pm3$ km/s. The radial velocity based system ephemeris is also provided. The light curves from several photometric surveys show no orbital modulation. The orbital solution suggests that the invisible companion has a minimum mass of about 0.60 $M_{\odot}$ and is $\sim0.79$ $M_{\odot}$ for an inclination of $60.0^{\circ}$, indicating most probably a CO core white dwarf. The system is expected to merge in about 1 Gyr. With present period and distance ($\sim596$ pc) it can not irradiate strong enough gravitational wave for LISA. More double degenerate systems are expected to be discovered and parameterized as the LAMOST survey goes on.

astro-ph.SR↗

arXiv2022

ELM of ELM-WD: An extremely low mass hot star discovered in LAMOST survey

The Extremely Low Mass White Dwarfs (ELM WDs) and pre-ELM WDs are helium core white dwarfs with mass $<\sim 0.3M_{\odot}$. Evolution simulations show that a lower mass limit for ELM WDs exists at $\approx0.14M_{\odot}$ and no one is proposed by observation to be less massive than that. Here we report the discovery of a binary system, LAMOST J224040.77-020732.8 (J2240 in short), which consists of a very low mass hot star and a compact companion. Multi-epoch spectroscopy shows an orbital period $P_{orb} =$0.219658$\pm0.000002$ days and a radial velocity semi-amplitude $K1=318.5\pm3.3km/s$, which gives the mass function of 0.74$M_{\odot}$, indicating the companion is a compact star. The F-type low resolution spectra illustrate no emission features, and the temperature ($\sim 7400K$) is consistent with that from Spectral Energy Distribution fitting and multi-color light curve solution. The optical light curves, in ZTF g, r and i bands and Catalina V band, show ellipsoidal variability with amplitudes $\sim30\%$, suggesting that the visible component is heavily tidally distorted. Combining the distance from Gaia survey, the ZTF light curves are modeled with Wilson-Devinney code and the result shows that the mass of the visible component is $M1=0.085^{+0.036}_{-0.024}M_{\odot}$, and the mass of the invisible component is $M2=0.98^{+0.16}_{-0.09}M_{\odot}$. The radius of the visible component is $R1=0.29^{+0.04}_{-0.03}R_{\odot}$. The inclination angle is approximately between 60$^{\circ}$ and 90$^{\circ}$. The observations indicate the system is most likely a pre-ELM WD + WD/NS binary, and the mass of pre-ELM is possibly lower than the $0.14M_{\odot}$ theoretical limit.

astro-ph.SR↗

arXiv2022

Discovery of one neutron star candidate from radial velocity monitoring

We report the discovery of one possible neutron star binary ($P_{\rm orb} =$ 0.8666 day) by using the LAMOST low-resolution spectroscopic data. The visible companion is a late A-type dwarf ($T_{\rm eff} = 7900 \pm 200$ K; log$g$ $=$ 4.3$\pm$0.2; $M =$ 1.7$\pm$0.1 M$_{\odot}$; $R\ =\ 1.7\pm0.2$ R$_{\odot}$), at a distance of 1.11$\pm0.03$ kpc. No double-lined feature can be seen from the GTC/HORuS high-resolution spectra, thus the radial velocity variation indicates an invisible object hiding in the binary. The system's optical light curves show clear ellipsoidal variability, suggesting that the visible companion is tidal distorted. By fitting the multi-band light curves with the ELC and WD codes, we constrain the mass of the invisible star to be 1.1--1.3 M$_{\odot}$. Spectral disentangling shows no additional component with optical absorption spectra, supporting the system contains one compact object. No X-ray or UV emission are detected in the ROSAT archive observations. Therefore, we suspect the invisible object is more likely a neutron star rather than a white dwarf. Our finding suggests the ability of LAMOST spectroscopic survey to discover X-ray quiescent compact objects.

astro-ph.HE↗

arXiv2022

Overview of the LAMOST survey in the first decade

The Large Sky Area Multi-Object Fiber Spectroscopic Telescope (LAMOST), also known as the Guoshoujing Telescope, is a major national scientific facility for astronomical research located in Xinglong, China. Beginning with a pilot survey in 2011, LAMOST has been surveying the night sky for more than 10 years. The LAMOST survey covers various objects in the Universe, from normal stars to peculiar ones, from the Milky Way to other galaxies, and from stellar black holes and their companions to quasars that ignite ancient galaxies. Until the latest data release 8, the LAMOST survey has released spectra for more than 10 million stars, ~220,000 galaxies, and ~71,000 quasars. With this largest celestial spectra database ever constructed, LAMOST has helped astronomers to deepen their understanding of the Universe, especially for our Milky Way galaxy and the millions of stars within it. In this article, we briefly review the characteristics, observations, and scientific achievements of LAMOST. In particular, we show how astrophysical knowledge about the Milky Way has been improved by LAMOST data.

astro-ph.GA↗

arXiv2021

LAMOST Time-Domain Survey: First Results of four $K$2 plates

From Oct. 2019 to Apr. 2020, LAMOST performs a time-domain spectroscopic survey of four $K$2 plates with both low- and med-resolution observations. The low-resolution spectroscopic survey gains 282 exposures ($\approx$46.6 hours) over 25 nights, yielding a total of about 767,000 spectra, and the med-resolution survey takes 177 exposures ($\approx$49.1 hours) over 27 nights, collecting about 478,000 spectra. More than 70%/50% of low-resolution/med-resolution spectra have signal-to-noise ratio higher than 10. We determine stellar parameters (e.g., $T_{\rm eff}$, log$g$, [Fe/H]) and radial velocity (RV) with different methods, including LASP, DD-Payne, and SLAM. In general, these parameter estimations from different methods show good agreement, and the stellar parameter values are consistent with those of APOGEE. We use the $Gaia$ DR2 RV data to calculate a median RV zero point (RVZP) for each spectrograph exposure by exposure, and the RVZP-corrected RVs agree well with the APOGEE data. The stellar evolutionary and spectroscopic masses are estimated based on the stellar parameters, multi-band magnitudes, distances and extinction values. Finally, we construct a binary catalog including about 2700 candidates by analyzing their light curves, fitting the RV data, calculating the binarity parameters from med-resolution spectra, and cross-matching the spatially resolved binary catalog from $Gaia$ EDR3. The LAMOST TD survey is expected to get breakthrough in various scientific topics, such as binary system, stellar activity, and stellar pulsation, etc.

astro-ph.SR↗

arXiv2020

LAMOST/HRS Spectroscopic Analysis of Two New Li-rich Giants

Two Li-rich candidates, TYC 1338-1410-1 and TYC 2825-596-1, were observed with the new high-resolution echelle spectrograph, LAMOST/HRS. Based on the high-resolution and high-signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) spectra, we derived stellar parameters and abundances of 14 important elements for the two candidates. The stellar parameters and lithium abundances indicate that they are Li-rich K-type giants, and they have A(Li)$_\mathrm{NLTE}$ of 1.77 and 2.91 dex, respectively. Our analysis suggests that TYC 1338-1410-1 is likely a red giant branch (RGB) star at the bump stage, while TYC 2825-596-1 is most likely a core helium-burning red clump (RC) star. The line profiles of both spectra indicate that the two Li-rich giants are slow rotators and do not show infrared (IR) excess. We conclude that engulfment is not the lithium enrichment mechanism for either star. The enriched lithium of TYC 1338-1410-1 could be created via Cameron-Fowler mechanism, while the lithium excess in TYC 2825-596-1 could be associated with either non-canonical mixing processes or He-flash.

astro-ph.SR↗

arXiv2020

Phase-dependent study of near-infrared disk emission lines in LB-1

The mass, origin and evolutionary stage of the binary system LB-1 has been the subject of intense debate, following the claim that it hosts an $\sim$70$M_{\odot}$ black hole, in stark contrast with the expectations for stellar remnants in the Milky Way. We conducted a high-resolution, phase-resolved spectroscopic study of the near-infrared Paschen lines in this system, using the 3.5-m telescope at Calar Alto Observatory. We find that Pa$β$ and Pa$γ$ (after proper subtraction of the stellar absorption component) are well fitted with a standard double-peaked model, typical of disk emission. We measured the velocity shifts of the red and blue peaks at 28 orbital phases: the line center has an orbital motion in perfect antiphase with the stellar motion, and the radial velocity amplitude ranges from 8 to 13 km/s for different choices of lines and profile modelling. We interpret this curve as proof that the disk is tracing the orbital motion of the primary, ruling out the circumbinary disk and the hierarchical triple scenarios. The phase-averaged peak-to-peak half-separation (proxy for the projected rotational velocity of the outer disk) is $\sim$70 km s$^{-1}$, larger than the stellar orbital velocity and also inconsistent with a circumbinary disk. From those results, we infer a primary mass 4--8 times higher than the secondary mass. Moreover, we show that the ratio of the blue and red peaks (V/R intensity ratio) has a sinusoidal behaviour in phase with the secondary star, which can be interpreted as the effect of external irradiation by the secondary star on the outer disk. Finally, we briefly discuss our findings in the context of alternative scenarios recently proposed for LB-1. Definitive tests between alternative solutions will require further astrometric data from $Gaia$.

astro-ph.SR↗

arXiv2019

A wide star-black-hole binary system from radial-velocity measurements

All stellar mass black holes have hitherto been identified by X-rays emitted by gas that is accreting onto the black hole from a companion star. These systems are all binaries with black holes below 30 M$_{\odot}$$^{1-4}$. Theory predicts, however, that X-ray emitting systems form a minority of the total population of star-black hole binaries$^{5,6}$. When the black hole is not accreting gas, it can be found through radial velocity measurements of the motion of the companion star. Here we report radial velocity measurements of a Galactic star, LB-1, which is a B-type star, taken over two years. We find that the motion of the B-star and an accompanying H$α$ emission line require the presence of a dark companion with a mass of $68^{+11}_{-13}$ M$_{\odot}$, which can only be a black hole. The long orbital period of 78.9 days shows that this is a wide binary system. The gravitational wave experiments have detected similarly massive black holes$^{7,8}$, but forming such massive ones in a high-metallicity environment would be extremely challenging to current stellar evolution theories$^{9-11}$.

astro-ph.SR↗