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Jenna Samuel

Publications and source records attributed to Jenna Samuel.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources
arXiv2026

The Milky Way's Missing In-Situ Halo

The Milky Way's stellar halo preserves a record of its mass assembly history, encoding accretion events in its structural properties. Among the most prominent of these features is a strong break in the halo density profile at $\approx$20-30 kpc, long attributed to the apocenter pile-up of stars from the Gaia-Enceladus/Sausage merger. However, whether this interpretation is consistent with state-of-the-art cosmological simulations remains unclear. In this work, we compare the Milky Way's measured stellar halo density profile between galactocentric radii of $1\unicode{x2013}100$ kpc to those of Milky Way-mass galaxies from the FIRE-2 and Auriga cosmological zoom-in simulation suites, spanning a total of 24 simulated galaxies. We find that simulated halo profiles are significantly steeper than Milky Way measurements within $\approx$15 kpc, and that profile breaks are rare in simulations and never as strong as the Milky Way's. Of the three galaxies with statistically significant breaks, only one exhibits a break attributable to apocenter pile-up of an accreted merger remnant. Decomposing the simulated profiles, we find that the accreted halo profiles are broadly consistent with Milky Way measurements, while the in-situ halo dominates within $\approx$20 kpc and drives the discrepancy. These results raise a compelling question: where is the Milky Way's in-situ halo? The origin of this tension may reflect systematic biases in current halo measurements, an overproduction of early spheroidal star formation in cosmological simulations, or more fundamental differences in the underlying physics (e.g., dark matter) governing the assembly and structure of the inner Galaxy.

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arXiv2026

Resolving galaxy formation in the early Universe with BonFIRE and CampFIRE

The abundance and rapid growth of galaxies at cosmic dawn revealed by the James Webb Space Telescope challenges models of galaxy formation, motivating new simulations to uncover the processes driving early galaxy assembly. We present the first results from BonFIRE ($L\approx40$ cMpc, $m_{\rm baryon}\approx5\times10^4~\rm{M}_{\odot}$) and CampFIRE ($L\approx5$ cMpc, at both $m_{\rm baryon}\approx800~\rm{M}_{\odot}$ and $\approx6\times10^3~\rm{M}_{\odot}$), a suite of cosmological hydrodynamic simulations of early galaxy formation ($z\gtrsim6$) from the Feedback In Realistic Environments (FIRE) project, using the FIRE-3 model. We use a resampling procedure to combine the large statistics of BonFIRE with the higher resolution of CampFIRE and robustly predict galaxy properties over a wide dynamic range ($M_{\star}\sim10^4-10^{10}~\rm{M}_{\odot}$). Galaxy formation in this suite emerges through clustered, bursty star formation, with halo-scale star formation efficiencies reaching $10-30\%$ in high-mass halos. A subset of low-mass halos also have surprisingly high efficiencies of $\gtrsim1\%$ and host ultra-compact galaxies with narrow age spreads. We predict galaxy UV luminosity functions at $9\lesssim~z\lesssim25$ in broad agreement with observations at $M_{\rm UV}\gtrsim-19$, with a faint-end turnover at $M_{\rm UV}\approx-14$, but we slightly overpredict the abundance of brighter galaxies. We find that UV luminosity variability in early galaxies is strongly mass-dependent, with halo-to-halo scatter dominating at low masses and contributing comparably to rapid temporal burstiness at $M_{\rm halo}\gtrsim10^{10}~\rm{M}_{\odot}$. We also present first results from a simple Pop~III model with a top-heavy IMF, demonstrating broad agreement with independent Pop~III predictions and observational constraints.

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arXiv2026

Beyond Cloud-9: The case for discovering more HI-rich failed halos

HI-rich starless halos, should they exist, hold great promise for elucidating dark matter halo structure. Yet realizing this potential demands reliable theoretical predictions for their properties and abundances. Indeed, the recent identification of Cloud-9 as a strong HI-rich starless halo candidate in the nearby universe makes such predictions timely. This Letter examines HI-rich ($M_\mathrm{HI} \geq 10^6\,M_\odot$) starless (isolated/central) halos at $z=0$ across three cosmological simulations: FIREbox, Recal-EAGLE and NIVARIA-LG. All three successfully produce such objects, with $M_\mathrm{HI}$ extending up to $\sim\!1$--$2$ dex above Cloud-9, but with number densities that vary by a factor of $\sim30$. These populations span different regions of the $M_\mathrm{HI}$--$M_\mathrm{gas}$--$M_{200}$ space: NIVARIA-LG produces objects with higher $M_\mathrm{HI}$ and $M_\mathrm{gas}$ values ($\gtrsim 10^7$ and $\gtrsim 10^8\,M_\odot$), while FIREbox predicts they lie within extremely narrow ranges of $M_\mathrm{gas} \sim(1.1$--$1.6)\times10^8\,M_\odot$ and $M_{200} \sim(7.8$--$8.6)\times10^9\,M_\odot$. Recal-EAGLE and NIVARIA-LG exhibit a strong $M_\mathrm{gas}-M_{200}$ correlation, with similar slopes but different normalizations. The simulations predict numerical Cloud-9 analogs -- though similarities in the shapes of their HI column-density profiles may be driven by FAST's modest beam; halving it already reveals differences. Collectively, these inter-simulation discrepancies make a compelling case for discoveries beyond Cloud-9: a statistical sample of well-resolved HI-rich starless halos is needed to discriminate amongst competing predictions.

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arXiv2026

Relatively Fast and Reasonably Furious: Evidence for Increased Burstiness in Smaller Halos at Cosmic Dawn

We introduce an effective framework to model star-formation burstiness and use it to jointly fit galaxy UV luminosity functions (UVLFs), clustering, and H$\alpha$/UV ratios, providing the first robust empirical evidence that early galaxies hosted in lower-mass halos are burstier. Using $z\sim 4-6$ observations, we find that galaxies show approximately $0.6$ dex of SFR variability if hosted in halos of $M_h = 10^{11}\, M_\odot$ (typical of $M_{\rm UV}\approx -19$ galaxies at $z = 6$). This translates into a scatter of $\sigma_{M_{\rm UV}}\approx 0.75$ mag in the UVLF, in line with past findings. Strikingly, we find that burstiness grows for galaxies hosted in smaller halos, reaching $\gtrsim 1$ dex for $M_h \leq 10^{9}\, M_\odot$ (corresponding to $\sigma_{M_{\rm UV}} \approx 1.5$ mag for faint $M_{\rm UV} \gtrsim -15$ galaxies). Extrapolating to higher redshifts, when small halos were more prevalent, the inferred mass-dependent burstiness can reproduce observed UVLFs up to $z\sim 17$ within 1$\sigma$, potentially alleviating the tension between pre- and post-JWST galaxy-formation models. Current observations allow us to constrain the main burst timescale to approximately $20$ Myr, consistent with expectations from supernova feedback, and suggest broad distributions of ionizing efficiencies at fixed $M_{\rm UV}$. Our results demonstrate that mass-dependent burstiness, as predicted by hydrodynamical simulations, is critical for understanding the mass assembly of early galaxies.

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arXiv2025

The quenched fraction of satellites around simulated Milky Way-mass galaxies

We compare satellite quenched fractions across three cosmological simulation suites (FIREbox, the FIRE-2 zoom-ins, and IllustrisTNG50) and observational datasets from SAGA, ELVES, and the combined satellite population of the Milky Way and M31. To enable consistent comparisons, we select Milky Way-mass hosts with $M_{\rm halo} = 10^{11.9}$ - $10^{12.2} \, M_{\odot}$ and satellites with stellar masses of $10^7$ - $10^{10} \, M_{\odot}$, applying nearly uniform radial selections and a common quenching definition. All three simulations reproduce the strong observed trend that lower-mass satellites are more likely to be quenched, closely matching the stellar mass dependence seen in SAGA, ELVES, and the Milky Way and M31 system. This agreement indicates that the mass dependence of satellite quenching is a robust outcome of contemporary galaxy formation models. Radial trends, however, show greater diversity. SAGA and ELVES exhibit gently declining quenched fractions with projected distance, consistent with stronger quenching at small radii. TNG50 most closely matches this behavior, while FIREbox remains broadly consistent with a weak radial trend within uncertainties. The FIRE-2 zoom-ins show suppressed quenched fractions at small projected distances, driven primarily by their paired MW-M31 analogs. We show that this discrepancy is not explained by host environment alone, but instead reflects atypical satellite populations in the paired systems, where star-forming and quenched satellites occupy distinct spatial distributions. Overall, our results demonstrate that stellar mass-quenched fraction trends are robust across simulations and observations, while radial trends are more sensitive to the detailed properties and distributions of satellite populations

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arXiv2025

Igniting galaxy formation in the post-reionization universe

It is widely believed that the ultraviolet background produced during the epoch of reionization conspires against the formation of low-mass galaxies. Indeed, this mechanism is often invoked as a solution to the so-called `missing satellites problem.' In this paper we employ FIREbox, a large-volume cosmological simulation based on the Feedback In Realistic Environments (FIRE-2) physics model, to characterize the mechanisms governing galaxy ignition in the post-reionization era. By carefully matching recently-ignited halos (with stellar ages below $100$ Myr at the time of selection) to halos that failed to form any stars, we conclude that the presence of cold-dense gas and halo concentration help incite the process of galaxy formation. Concretely, we find that $100\%$ of recently-ignited halos experience cold-dense gas enhancements relative to their matched failed counterparts. Likewise, approximately $83\%$ display enhancements in both cold-dense gas and Navarro-Frenk-White concentration ($c_{\rm NFW}$), while the remaining $\sim17\%$ exhibit enhanced cold-dense gas content and suppressed $c_{\rm NFW}$ values. Lastly, our simulation suggests that galaxy ignition can occur as late as $z=2$, potentially allowing us to observationally catch this process `in the act' in the foreseeable future.

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arXiv2025

Second public data release of the FIRE-2 cosmological zoom-in simulations of galaxy formation

We describe the second data release (DR2) of the FIRE-2 cosmological zoom-in simulations of galaxy formation, from the Feedback In Realistic Environments (FIRE) project, available at http://flathub.flatironinstitute.org/fire. DR2 includes all snapshots for most simulations, starting at z ~ 99, with all snapshot time spacings <~ 25 Myr. The Core suite -- comprising 14 Milky Way-mass galaxies, 5 SMC/LMC-mass galaxies, and 4 lower-mass galaxies -- includes 601 snapshots to z = 0. For the Core suite, we also release resimulations with physics variations: (1) dark-matter-only versions; (2) a modified ultraviolet background with later reionization at z = 7.8; (3) magnetohydrodynamics, anisotropic conduction, and viscosity in gas; and (4) a model for cosmic-ray injection, transport, and feedback (assuming a constant diffusion coefficient). The Massive Halo suite now includes 8 massive galaxies with 278 snapshots to z = 1. The High Redshift suite includes 34 simulations: in addition to the 22 simulations run to z = 5, we now include 12 additional simulations run to z = 7 and z = 9. We also release 4 dark-matter-only cosmological boxes used to generate zoom-in initial conditions for many FIRE simulations. Most simulations include catalogs of (sub)halos and galaxies at all available snapshots, and most Core simulations to z = 0 include full halo merger trees.

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arXiv2025

Central densities of dark matter halos in FIRE-2 simulations of low-mass galaxies with cold dark matter and self-interacting dark matter

We investigate the central density structure of dark matter halos in cold dark matter (CDM) and self-interacting dark matter (SIDM) models using simulations that are part of the Feedback In Realistic Environments (FIRE) project. For simulated halos of dwarf galaxy scale ($M_{\rm halo}(z=0)\approx 10^{10}\,M_\odot$), we study the central structure in both dissipationless simulations and simulations with full FIRE-2 galaxy formation physics. As has been demonstrated extensively in recent years, both baryonic feedback and self-interactions can convert central cusps into cores, with the former process doing so in a manner that depends sensitively on stellar mass at fixed $M_{\rm halo}$. Whether the two processes (baryonic feedback and self-interactions) are distinguishable, however, remains an open question. Here we demonstrate that, compared to feedback-induced cores, SIDM-induced cores transition more quickly from the central region of constant density to the falling density at larger radial scales. This result holds true even when including identical galaxy formation modeling in SIDM simulations as is used in CDM simulations, since self-interactions dominate over galaxy formation physics in establishing the central structure of SIDM halos in this mass regime. The change in density profile slope as a function of radius therefore holds the potential to discriminate between self-interactions and galaxy formation physics as the driver of core formation in dwarf galaxies.

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arXiv2023

Stellar Metallicities and Gradients in the Isolated, Quenched Low-Mass Galaxy Tucana

We measure the metallicities of 374 red giant branch (RGB) stars in the isolated, quenched dwarf galaxy Tucana using Hubble Space Telescope (HST) narrow-band (F395N) Calcium H & K (CaHK) imaging. Our sample is a factor of $\sim7$ larger than what is published. Our main findings are: (i) A global metallicity distribution function (MDF) with $\langle \mbox{[Fe/H]} \rangle = -1.55 \pm 0.04$ and $\sigma_{\mbox{[Fe/H]}}=0.54\pm0.03$; (ii) A metallicity gradient of $-0.54 \pm 0.07$ dex $R_e^{-1}$ ($-2.1 \pm 0.3$ dex kpc$^{-1}$) over the extent of our imaging ($\sim 2.5 R_e$), which is steeper than literature measurements. Our finding is consistent with predicted gradients from the publicly-available FIRE-2 simulations, in which bursty star formation creates stellar population gradients and dark matter cores; (iii) Tucana's bifurcated RGB has distinct metallicities: a blue RGB with $\langle \mbox{[Fe/H]} \rangle = -1.78 \pm 0.06$ and $\sigma_{\mbox{[Fe/H]}}=0.44^{+0.07}_{-0.06}$, and a red RGB with $\langle \mbox{[Fe/H]} \rangle = -1.08 \pm 0.07$ and $\sigma_{\mbox{[Fe/H]}}=0.42 \pm 0.06$; (iv) At fixed stellar mass, Tucana is more MR than MW satellites by $\sim 0.4$ dex, but its blue RGB is chemically comparable to the satellites. Tucana's MDF appears consistent with star-forming isolated dwarfs, though MDFs of the latter are not as well-populated; (v) $\sim2$% of Tucana's stars have $\mbox{[Fe/H]} < -3$ and 20% $\mbox{[Fe/H]} > -1$. We provide a catalog for community spectroscopic follow-up.

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arXiv2023

On the co-rotation of Milky Way satellites: LMC-mass satellites induce apparent motions in outer halo tracers

Understanding the physical mechanism behind the formation of a co-rotating thin plane of satellite galaxies, like the one observed around the Milky Way (MW), has been challenging. The perturbations induced by a massive satellite galaxy, like the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) provide valuable insight into this problem. The LMC induces an apparent co-rotating motion in the outer halo by displacing the inner regions of the halo with respect to the outer halo. Using the Latte suite of FIRE-2 cosmological simulations of MW-mass galaxies, we confirm that the apparent motion of the outer halo induced by the infall of a massive satellite changes the observed distribution of orbital poles of outer-halo tracers, including satellites. We quantify the changes in the distribution of orbital poles using the two-point angular correlation function and find that all satellites induce changes. However, the most massive satellites with pericentric passages between 30-100kpc induce the largest changes. The best LMC-like satellite analog shows the largest change in orbital pole distribution. The dispersion of orbital poles decreases by 20{\deg} during the first two pericentric passages. Even when excluding the satellites brought in with the LMC-like satellite, there is clustering of orbital poles. These results suggest that in the MW, the recent pericentric passage of the LMC should have changed the observed distribution of orbital poles of all other satellites. Therefore, studies of kinematically-coherent planes of satellites that seek to place the MW in a cosmological context should account for the existence of a massive satellite like the LMC.

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arXiv2023

Hooks & Bends in the Radial Acceleration Relation: Discriminatory Tests for Dark Matter and MOND

The Radial Acceleration Relation (RAR) connects the total gravitational acceleration of a galaxy at a given radius, $a_{\rm tot}(r)$, with that accounted for by baryons at the same radius, $a_{\rm bar}(r)$. The shape and tightness of the RAR for rotationally-supported galaxies have characteristics in line with MOdified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND) and can also arise within the Cosmological Constant + Cold Dark Matter ($\Lambda$CDM) paradigm. We use zoom simulations of 20 galaxies with stellar masses of $M_{\star} \, \simeq 10^{7-11} \, M_{\odot}$ to study the RAR in the \texttt{FIRE-2} simulations. We highlight the existence of simulated galaxies with non-monotonic RAR tracks that ``hook'' down from the average relation. These hooks are challenging to explain in Modified Inertia theories of MOND, but naturally arise in all of our \lcdm-simulated galaxies that are dark-matter dominated at small radii and have feedback-induced cores in their dark matter haloes. We show, analytically and numerically, that downward hooks are expected in such cored haloes because they have non-monotonic acceleration profiles. We also extend the relation to accelerations below those traced by disc galaxy rotation curves. In this regime, our simulations exhibit ``bends'' off of the MOND-inspired extrapolation of the RAR, which, at large radii, approach $a_{\rm tot} \, \approx \, a_{\rm bar} \, /f_{\rm b}$, where $f_{\rm b}$ is the cosmic baryon fraction. Future efforts to search for these hooks and bends in real galaxies will provide interesting tests for MOND and $\Lambda$CDM.

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arXiv2023

The dark side of FIRE: predicting the population of dark matter subhaloes around Milky Way-mass galaxies

A variety of observational campaigns seek to test dark-matter models by measuring dark-matter subhaloes at low masses. Despite their predicted lack of stars, these subhaloes may be detectable through gravitational lensing or via their gravitational perturbations on stellar streams. To set measurable expectations for subhalo populations within LambdaCDM, we examine 11 Milky Way (MW)-mass haloes from the FIRE-2 baryonic simulations, quantifying the counts and orbital fluxes for subhaloes with properties relevant to stellar stream interactions: masses down to 10^6 Msun, distances < 50 kpc of the galactic center, across z = 0 - 1 (lookback time 0 - 8 Gyr). We provide fits to our results and their dependence on subhalo mass, distance, and lookback time, for use in (semi)analytic models. A typical MW-mass halo contains ~16 subhaloes >10^7 Msun (~1 subhalo >10^8 Msun) within 50 kpc at z = 0. We compare our results with dark-matter-only versions of the same simulations: because they lack a central galaxy potential, they overpredict subhalo counts by 2-10x, more so at smaller distances. Subhalo counts around a given MW-mass galaxy declined over time, being ~10x higher at z = 1 than at z = 0. Subhaloes have nearly isotropic orbital velocity distributions at z = 0. Across our simulations, we also identified 4 analogs of Large Magellanic Cloud satellite passages; these analogs enhance subhalo counts by 1.4-2.7 times, significantly increasing the expected subhalo population around the MW today. Our results imply an interaction rate of ~5 per Gyr for a stream like GD-1, sufficient to make subhalo-stream interactions a promising method of measuring dark subhaloes.

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arXiv2022

A jolt to the system: ram pressure on low-mass galaxies in simulations of the Local Group

Low-mass galaxies are highly susceptible to environmental effects that can efficiently quench star formation. We explore the role of ram pressure in quenching low-mass galaxies ($M_{*}\sim10^{5-9}\,\rm{M}_{\odot}$) within 2 Mpc of Milky Way (MW) hosts using the FIRE-2 simulations. Ram pressure is highly variable across different environments, within individual MW haloes, and for individual low-mass galaxies over time. The impulsiveness of ram pressure -- the maximum ram pressure scaled to the integrated ram pressure prior to quenching -- correlates with whether a galaxy is quiescent or star-forming. The time-scale between maximum ram pressure and quenching is anticorrelated with impulsiveness, such that high impulsiveness corresponds to quenching time-scales $<1$ Gyr. Galaxies in low-mass groups ($M_\mathrm{*,host}\sim10^{7-9}\,\rm{M}_{\odot}$) outside of MW haloes experience typical ram pressure only slightly lower than ram pressure on MW satellites, helping to explain effective quenching via group pre-processing. Ram pressure on MW satellites rises sharply with decreasing distance to the host, and, at a fixed physical distance, more recent pericentre passages are typically associated with higher ram pressure because of greater gas density in the inner host halo at late times. Furthermore, the ram pressure and gas density in the inner regions of Local Group-like paired host haloes is higher at small angles off the host galaxy disc compared to isolated hosts. The quiescent fraction of satellites within these low-latitude regions is also elevated in the simulations and observations, signaling possible anisotropic quenching via ram pressure around MW-mass hosts.

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arXiv2022

Orbital dynamics and histories of satellite galaxies around Milky Way-mass galaxies in the FIRE simulations

The orbits of satellite galaxies encode rich information about their histories. We investigate the orbital dynamics and histories of satellite galaxies around Milky Way (MW)-mass host galaxies using the FIRE-2 cosmological simulations, which, as previous works have shown, produce satellite mass functions and spatial distributions that broadly agree with observations. We first examine trends in orbital dynamics at z = 0, including total velocity, specific angular momentum, and specific total energy: the time of infall into the MW-mass halo primarily determines these orbital properties. We then examine orbital histories, focusing on the lookback time of first infall into a host halo and pericenter distances, times, and counts. Roughly 37 per cent of galaxies with Mstar < 10^7 Msun were `pre-processed' as a satellite in a lower-mass group, typically ~2.7 Gyr before falling into the MW-mass halo. Half of all satellites at z = 0 experienced multiple pericenters about their MW-mass host. Remarkably, for most (67 per cent) of these satellites, their most recent pericenter was not their minimum pericenter: the minimum typically was ~40 per cent smaller and occurred ~6 Gyr earlier. These satellites with growing pericenters appear to have multiple origins: for about half, their specific angular momentum gradually increased over time, while for the other half, most rapidly increased near their first apocenter, suggesting that a combination of a time-dependent MW-mass halo potential and dynamical perturbations in the outer halo caused these satellites' pericenters to grow. Our results highlight the limitations of idealized, static orbit modeling, especially for pericenter histories.

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arXiv2022

Formation of proto-globular cluster candidates in cosmological simulations of dwarf galaxies at $z>4$

We perform cosmological hydrodynamical simulations to study the formation of proto-globular cluster candidates in progenitors of present-day dwarf galaxies $(M_{\rm vir} \approx 10^{10}\, {\rm M}_\odot$ at $z=0$) as part of the "Feedback in Realistic Environment" (FIRE) project. Compact ($r_{1/2}<30$ pc), relatively massive ($0.5 \times 10^5 \lesssim M_{\star}/{\rm M}_\odot \lesssim 5\times10^5$), self-bound stellar clusters form at $11\gtrsim z \gtrsim 5$ in progenitors with $M_{\rm vir} \approx 10^9\,{\rm M}_\odot$. Cluster formation is triggered when at least $10^7\,{\rm M}_\odot$ of dense, turbulent gas reaches $\Sigma_{\rm gas} \approx 10^4\, {\rm M}_\odot\, {\rm pc}^{-2}$ as a result of the compressive effects of supernova feedback or from cloud-cloud collisions. The clusters can survive for $2-3\,{\rm Gyr}$; absent numerical effects, they would likely survive substantially longer, perhaps to $z=0$. The longest-lived clusters are those that form at significant distance -- several hundreds of pc -- from their host galaxy. We therefore predict that globular clusters forming in progenitors of present-day dwarf galaxies will be offset from any pre-existing stars within their host dark matter halos as opposed to deeply embedded within a well-defined galaxy. Properties of the nascent clusters are consistent with observations of some of the faintest and most compact high-redshift sources in \textit{Hubble Space Telescope} lensing fields and are at the edge of what will be detectable as point sources in deep imaging of non-lensed fields with the \textit{James Webb Space Telescope}. By contrast, the star clusters' host galaxies will remain undetectable.

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arXiv2022

The Lick AGN Monitoring Project 2016: Dynamical Modeling of Velocity-Resolved H\b{eta} Lags in Luminous Seyfert Galaxies

We have modeled the velocity-resolved reverberation response of the H\b{eta} broad emission line in nine Seyfert 1 galaxies from the Lick Active Galactic Nucleus (AGN) Monitioring Project 2016 sample, drawing inferences on the geometry and structure of the low-ionization broad-line region (BLR) and the mass of the central supermassive black hole. Overall, we find that the H\b{eta} BLR is generally a thick disk viewed at low to moderate inclination angles. We combine our sample with prior studies and investigate line-profile shape dependence, such as log10(FWHM/{\sigma}), on BLR structure and kinematics and search for any BLR luminosity-dependent trends. We find marginal evidence for an anticorrelation between the profile shape of the broad H\b{eta} emission line and the Eddington ratio, when using the root-mean-square spectrum. However, we do not find any luminosity-dependent trends, and conclude that AGNs have diverse BLR structure and kinematics, consistent with the hypothesis of transient AGN/BLR conditions rather than systematic trends.

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arXiv2022

Extinguishing the FIRE: environmental quenching of satellite galaxies around Milky Way-mass hosts in simulations

The star formation and gas content of satellite galaxies around the Milky Way (MW) and Andromeda (M31) are depleted relative to more isolated galaxies in the Local Group (LG) at fixed stellar mass. We explore the environmental regulation of gas content and quenching of star formation in $z=0$ galaxies at $M*=10^{5-10}\rm{M}_{\odot}$ around 14 MW-mass hosts from the FIRE-2 simulations. Lower-mass satellites ($M*\lesssim10^7\rm{M}_{\odot}$) are mostly quiescent and higher-mass satellites ($M*\gtrsim10^8\rm{M}_{\odot}$) are mostly star-forming, with intermediate-mass satellites ($M*\approx10^{7-8}\rm{M}_{\odot}$) split roughly equally between quiescent and star-forming. Hosts with more gas in their circumgalactic medium have a higher quiescent fraction of massive satellites ($M*=10^{8-9}\rm{M}_{\odot}$). We find no significant dependence on isolated versus paired (LG-like) host environments, and the quiescent fractions of satellites around MW-mass and LMC-mass hosts from the FIRE-2 simulations are remarkably similar. Environmental effects that lead to quenching can also occur as preprocessing in low-mass groups prior to MW infall. Lower-mass satellites typically quenched before MW infall as central galaxies or rapidly during infall into a low-mass group or a MW-mass galaxy. Most intermediate- to high-mass quiescent satellites have experienced $\geq1-2$ pericentre passages ($\approx2.5-5$ Gyr) within a MW-mass halo. Most galaxies with $M*\gtrsim10^{6.5}\rm{M}_{\odot}$ did not quench before falling into a host, indicating a possible upper mass limit for isolated quenching. The simulations reproduce the average trend in the LG quiescent fraction across the full range of satellite stellar masses. Though the simulations are consistent with the SAGA survey's quiescent fraction at $M*\gtrsim10^8\rm{M}_{\odot}$, they do not generally reproduce SAGA's turnover at lower masses.

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arXiv2022

Public data release of the FIRE-2 cosmological zoom-in simulations of galaxy formation

We describe a public data release of the FIRE-2 cosmological zoom-in simulations of galaxy formation, available at http://flathub.flatironinstitute.org/fire, from the Feedback In Realistic Environments (FIRE) project. FIRE-2 simulations achieve parsec-scale resolution to explicitly model the multi-phase interstellar medium while implementing direct models for stellar evolution and feedback, including stellar winds, core-collapse and Ia supernovae, radiation pressure, photoionization, and photoelectric heating. We release complete snapshots from 3 suites of simulations. The first comprises 20 simulations that zoom in on 14 Milky Way-mass galaxies, 5 SMC/LMC-mass galaxies, and 4 lower-mass galaxies including 1 ultra-faint; we release 39 snapshots across z = 0 - 10. The second comprises 4 massive galaxies, with 19 snapshots across z = 1 - 10. Finally, a high-redshift suite comprises 22 simulations, with 11 snapshots across z = 5 - 10. Each simulation also includes dozens of resolved lower-mass (satellite) galaxies in its zoom-in region. Snapshots include all stored properties for all dark matter, gas, and star particles, including 11 elemental abundances for stars and gas, and formation times (ages) of star particles. We also release accompanying (sub)halo catalogs, which include galaxy properties and member star particles. For the simulations to z = 0, including all Milky Way-mass galaxies, we release the formation coordinates and an "ex-situ" flag for all star particles, pointers to track particles across snapshots, catalogs of stellar streams, and multipole basis expansions for the halo mass distributions. We describe publicly available python packages for reading and analyzing these simulations.

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