A generalized likelihood model for segmented muon counters
Measurements of the muonic component of extensive air showers constrain cosmic-ray mass composition and hadronic interactions at energies beyond those accessible at accelerators. Arrays of segmented detectors with binary readout are widely used for this purpose: they sample the muon density at different distances from the shower core to reconstruct the muon lateral distribution function (LDF). Each detector response is summarized by the number of activated segments, $k$, whose probability distribution provides the likelihood relating the observation to the expected muon content. Signal pile-up, detector inefficiency, corner-clipping muons, and background signals shape this distribution, and neglecting them can bias the reconstruction. Existing analytical models include pile-up but otherwise assume an ideal detector response. In this work, we develop a unified statistical framework that incorporates inefficiency, corner clipping, and background through a small set of physically interpretable parameters. We derive exact expressions for the detector response and the likelihood required for muon-LDF reconstruction, together with a simple binomial approximation that preserves the main statistical properties of the exact distribution. Dedicated Monte Carlo simulations are used to assess the impact of the assumptions underlying the analytical treatment and show that it is negligible over the parameter range considered. They also show that the exact and approximate likelihoods yield similar performance in terms of estimator bias and confidence-interval coverage. Although motivated by the Underground Muon Detector of the Pierre Auger Observatory, the framework applies more broadly to segmented particle detectors with binary readout in which particle content is inferred from the number of activated segments.