arXiv subjects

Kazuhiro Hada

Publications and source records attributed to Kazuhiro Hada.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

arXiv2026

Black Hole Explorer Mission Development in Japan

The Black Hole Explorer (BHEX) is a next-generation space very-long-baseline interferometry (VLBI) mission concept that will extend existing ground-based millimeter/submillimeter VLBI arrays to space. The Japanese astronomical community has contributed to BHEX mission development through the BHEX Japan Consortium, established in 2023. This paper provides a high-level summary of progress in Japan since 2024, including the establishment of the Black Hole Explorer Working Group (BHEX WG) at the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS), JAXA, to conduct the Japanese side of the Pre-Phase~A mission studies. We outline recent advances in key instrument technologies, including concept design studies of a 4.5\,K closed-cycle mechanical cryocooler and prototype development of an ultra-wideband 300\,GHz Superconductor--Insulator--Superconductor (SIS) mixer for BHEX. We also describe ongoing upgrades to Japan's ground infrastructure to support 86\,GHz observations with VERA and simultaneous 86+230\,GHz observations with the Nobeyama 45\,m Telescope.

astro-ph.IM↗

arXiv2026

Dynamics and geometry of the inner sub-parsec-scale jet in 3C 279 observed with the Event Horizon Telescope

The 2021 Event Horizon Telescope observations resolve the innermost jet region of the blazar 3C279 with unprecedented detail. The reconstructed images consistently reveal a compact core elongated nearly orthogonal to the large-scale jet axis. This rarely observed morphology recurs across multiple epochs and from 22-230 GHz and is therefore intrinsic rather than an imaging artifact. Geometric model fitting identifies several components with apparent speeds up to 10c, requiring bulk Lorentz factors greater than 10.3 and constraining viewing angles to extremely small values (smaller than one degree). Rest-frame brightness temperatures are systematically low (between 10^9 and 10^10 K), consistent with optically thin emission at 230 GHz. These results suggest that the jet bends toward the observer on sub-parsec scales, producing strong relativistic beaming. Possible drivers of the observed jet bending and temporal evolution include the jet's interaction with the interstellar medium, kink or Kelvin--Helmholtz instabilities, magnetic reconnection near the horizon, or binary-induced precession. However, the current temporal coverage of VLBI data remains insufficient to distinguish between these mechanisms. Continued multifrequency VLBI monitoring will be essential to constraining the dynamics and geometry of the jet base in 3C279.

astro-ph.GA↗

arXiv2026

A Weak Fe K$\beta$ Emission Line in the Broad-Line Radio Galaxy 3C 111 Observed with XRISM: An Ionized Wind Absorption Feature?

We present the results of an observation of the broad-line radio galaxy 3C 111 with the X-Ray Imaging and Spectroscopy Mission (XRISM). The unprecedentedly high spectral resolution of XRISM/Resolve revealed that the Fe K$\beta$ emission line is significantly weaker than expected from the Fe K$\alpha$ line. This feature may be explained by a blueshifted absorption line from an ionized wind overlapping the Fe K$\beta$ energy. The inferred outflow velocity is 4600 km s$^{-1}$ or 17200 km s$^{-1}$, depending on whether the absorption feature is identified as Fe XXVI or Fe XXV, with the current data unable to distinguish between the two interpretations. Based on spectral modeling, the kinetic power of the wind is estimated to lie in the range 10$^{41}$-10$^{44}$ erg s$^{-1}$, although this estimate is subject to large uncertainties primarily due to the poorly constrained location of the absorber. The inferred wind power is smaller than the jet power of 3C 111 ($\sim 3\times 10^{44}$ erg s$^{-1}$), and is broadly consistent with theoretical expectations that the jet power exceeds that of disk winds.

astro-ph.HE↗

arXiv2026

A VLBA-resolved Jet Associated with Super-Eddington Accretion in a Radio-loud Quasar at $z=3.4$

We report the detailed jet properties of eROSITA Final Equatorial Depth Survey (eFEDS) J084222.9+001000 (hereafter ID830), a radio-loud super-Eddington quasar at $z=3.4351$, revealed by Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA) observations at 1.6 GHz, 4.9 GHz, and 8.2 GHz. Thanks to the high spatial resolution of the VLBA, we successfully resolve a parsec-scale core-jet structure of ID830, and find a well-collimated jet extending over $\approx 745$ pc, making it the most distant and one of the very few currently known radio-loud quasars with a resolved jet associated with super-Eddington accretion. The physical scale and evolutionary track of ID830 differs markedly from the low-$z$ analogues, such as nearby radio-luminous high-Eddington narrow-line Seyfert 1 galaxies, suggesting that this source represents a distinct high-$z$ population compared to previously known samples, with important implications for AGN feedback in early galaxy evolution. We also find that the jet has a relativistic speed of $v \gtrsim 0.19c$ and a modest viewing angle of $\phi \lesssim 79^\circ$ to the line of sight, although its emission is not significantly Doppler-boosted ($\delta \sim 1$). This provides the first evidence that such a relativistic and collimated jet can be produced over several hundred parsecs in the super-Eddington phase, lasting for at least $10^{3\text{-}4}$ yr. Our results call for further theoretical and numerical studies to understand the physical processes required to sustain such large-scale collimation in super-Eddington accretion, which remains a missing piece.

astro-ph.GA↗

arXiv2026

Full-polarization millimeter wavelength variability of Sagittarius A* during the 2018 EHT campaign

Sagittarius A* (Srg A*), the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way, provides a unique laboratory to study accretion dynamics and plasma processes near the event horizon. We investigated the variability and polarization properties of Srg A* using ALMA observations during the 2018 Event Horizon Telescope campaign. We analyzed high-cadence full-polarization light curves from ALMA at millimeter wavelengths, performed time-series analysis, and investigated the temporal behavior during an X-ray flare observed by Chandra on 2018 April 24. The variability characteristics are compared with expectations from standard accretion flow models. We find low variability in total intensity ($\sigma/\mu < 10\%$), but significantly higher variability in linear and circular polarization (~ 30% and ~ 50%, respectively). A time-series analysis reveals red-noise variability, with power spectral densities between -2 and -3 across all Stokes parameters. Polarized intensity shows stable intra-day timescales, while total intensity exhibits more variable timescales, suggesting distinct emission regions, with polarization likely arising from a coherent structure. On April 24, a statistically significant inter-band delay in polarized intensity coincides with a near-simultaneous X-ray and millimeter peak that deviates from the typical delayed flare scenario. This event also features enhanced millimeter variability and coherent polarization loop evolution. The observed simultaneity challenges standard models of transient synchrotron emission with cooling delays, favoring instead a scenario of continuous energy injection in an optically thin region. Our results offer new constraints on the physical mechanisms driving variability in Srg A*, and provide key observational input for refining theoretical models of accretion and plasma behavior in the vicinity of supermassive black holes.

astro-ph.GA↗

arXiv2026

Verification of the Polarimetric Capability of the East Asia VLBI Network

The East Asia VLBI Network (EAVN) has recently enabled dual-polarization observations at $22$ and $43\,\mathrm{GHz}$. We present the first systematic verification of its polarimetric performance using EAVN observations of M87, 3C 279, 3C 273, and OJ 287, calibrated with the GPCAL pipeline and evaluated against near-contemporaneous VLBA images at comparable frequencies. Most stations show stable polarimetric leakages with amplitudes of $5$-$10\%$ over monthly timescales. While several VERA stations exhibit D-term phase variations between epochs, we attribute these to field-rotator (FR) offsets and demonstrate that phase stability is restored after applying the analytically derived FR corrections. The resulting linear-polarization morphologies and EVPAs broadly agree with the VLBA results within uncertainties; fractional polarization measured by the EAVN tends to be slightly higher near polarization peaks. Although exact one-to-one comparisons are limited by moderate frequency and epoch differences, the combined evidence indicates robust EAVN polarimetric calibration and imaging capabilities at $22$ and $43\,\mathrm{GHz}$. These results support the scientific capability of EAVN polarimetry and lay the groundwork for expanded, higher-fidelity polarimetric studies in East Asia.

astro-ph.IM↗

arXiv2026

Transverse Oscillations and Wave Propagation in the Magnetically Dominated M87 Jet

We present an in-depth analysis of transverse oscillations in the M87 jet, as identified in our previous study (Ro et al. 2023a), which reported oscillatory patterns with a characteristic period of $\sim$1 year in the edge-brightened jet structure extending up to 12\,mas from the core. This work is based on high-cadence KaVA 22\,GHz observations conducted from December 2013 to June 2016. By analyzing the transverse velocity profiles and the spatial evolution of the oscillations, we find that the oscillations propagate downstream along the jet, with a wavelength of $\sim9-10$\,mas. A single-mode sinusoidal wave model applied to the ridge lines successfully reproduces the observed transverse oscillations and yields superluminal wave speeds of $\sim2.7-2.9\,c$, consistent with the bulk jet velocity in this region. These findings suggest that the transverse oscillations may be interpreted either as transverse MHD waves -- possibly excited by jet precession, nutation, or quasi-periodic magnetic flux eruptions near the central engine -- or as manifestations of jet instabilities, such as current-driven instabilities (CDIs). Further investigation is required to distinguish between these scenarios and to clarify the dominant physical mechanism.

astro-ph.HE↗

arXiv2026

Expanding the Horizon of Black Hole Imaging with AtLAST

The Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) has directly resolved and imaged two supermassive black holes and opening a new window on black hole physics. However, the current array is limited to only these two brightest nearby targets. This white paper outlines how future EHT upgrades, anchored by the Atacama Large Aperture Submillimeter Telescope (AtLAST), will enable a transformative expansion of the accessible population of event-horizon-scale sources. By substantially improving sensitivity and multi-frequency capabilities, EHT+AtLAST will enable demographic studies of black hole growth, accretion physics, and jet launching across a wide range of masses, environments, and accretion states.

astro-ph.IM↗

arXiv2026

Locating the missing large-scale emission in the jet of M87* with short EHT baselines

In Very-Long Baseline Interferometric arrays, nearly co-located stations probe the largest scales and typically cannot resolve the observed source. In the absence of large-scale structure, closure phases constructed with these stations are zero and, since they are independent of station-based errors, they can be used to probe data issues. Here, we show with an expansion about co-located stations, how these trivial closure phases become non-zero with brightness distribution on smaller scales than their short baseline would suggest. When applied to sources that are made up of a bright compact and large-scale diffuse component, the trivial closure phases directly measure the centroid relative to the compact source and higher-order image moments. We present a technique to measure these image moments with minimal model assumptions and validate it on synthetic Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) data. We then apply this technique to 2017 and 2018 EHT observations of M87* and find a weak preference for extended emission in the direction of the large-scale jet. We also apply it to 2021 EHT data and measure the source centroid about 1 mas northwest of the compact ring, consistent with the jet observed at lower frequencies.

astro-ph.HE↗

arXiv2026

Ring Asymmetry and Spin in M87*

Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) images of the supermassive black hole M87* depict an asymmetric ring of emission. General relativistic magnetohydrodynamic (GRMHD) models of M87* and its accretion disk predict that the amplitude and location of the ring's peak brightness asymmetry should fluctuate due to turbulence in the source plasma. We compare the observed distribution of brightness asymmetry amplitudes to the simulated distribution in GRMHD models, across varying black hole spin $a_{*}$. We show that, for strongly magnetized (MAD) models, three epochs of EHT data marginally disfavor $|a_{*}| \lesssim 0.2$. This is consistent with the Blandford-Znajek model for M87's jet, which predicts that M87* should have nonzero spin. We show quantitatively how future observations could improve spin constraints, and discuss how improved spin constraints could distinguish between differing jet-launching mechanisms and black hole growth scenarios.

astro-ph.HE↗

arXiv2025

Probing jet base emission of M87* with the 2021 Event Horizon Telescope observations

We investigate the presence and spatial characteristics of the jet base emission in M87* at 230 GHz, enabled by the enhanced uv coverage in the 2021 Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) observations. The addition of the 12-m Kitt Peak Telescope and NOEMA provides two key intermediate-length baselines to SMT and the IRAM 30-m, giving sensitivity to emission structures at scales of $\sim250~\mu$as and $\sim2500~\mu$as (0.02 pc and 0.2 pc). Without these baselines, earlier EHT observations lacked the capability to constrain emission on large scales, where a "missing flux" of order $\sim1$ Jy is expected. To probe these scales, we analyzed closure phases, robust against station-based gain errors, and modeled the jet base emission using a simple Gaussian offset from the compact ring emission at separations $>100~\mu$as. Our analysis reveals a Gaussian feature centered at ($\Delta$RA $\approx320~\mu$as, $\Delta$Dec $\approx60~\mu$as), a projected separation of $\approx5500$ AU, with a flux density of only $\sim60$ mJy, implying that most of the missing flux in previous studies must arise from larger scales. Brighter emission at these scales is ruled out, and the data do not favor more complex models. This component aligns with the inferred direction of the large-scale jet and is consistent with emission from the jet base. While our findings indicate detectable jet base emission at 230 GHz, coverage from only two intermediate baselines limits reconstruction of its morphology. We therefore treat the recovered Gaussian as an upper limit on the jet base flux density. Future EHT observations with expanded intermediate-baseline coverage will be essential to constrain the structure and nature of this component.

astro-ph.HE↗

arXiv2025

First Mid-infrared Detection and Modeling of a Flare from Sgr A*. II. Mid-IR Spectral Energy Distribution and Millimeter Polarimetry

S. D. von Fellenberg et al. (2025a, Paper I) reported the first mid-infrared detection of a flare from Sgr A*. The JWST/MIRI/MRS observations were consistent with an orbiting hotspot undergoing electron injection with a spectrum that subsequently breaks from synchrotron cooling. However, mid-infrared extinction measurements appropriate for these data were not yet determined, and therefore the temporal evolution of the absolute spectral index remained unknown. This work applies new Galactic Center extinction measurements to the flare observations. The evolution of the spectral index after the peak is fully consistent with that reported in Paper I with a maximum absolute mid-infrared spectral index $\alpha_{\rm{MIR}}=0.45\pm0.01_{\rm{stat}}\pm0.08_{\rm{sys}}$ during the second mid-infrared flare peak, matching the known near-infrared spectral index during bright states ($\alpha_{\rm{NIR}}\approx0.5$). There was a near-instantaneous change in the mid-infrared spectral index of $\Delta\alpha_{\rm{MIR}}=0.33\pm0.06_{\rm{stat}}\pm0.11_{\rm{sys}}$ at the flare onset. We propose this as a quantitative definition for this infrared flare's beginning, physically interpreted as the underlying electron distribution's transition into a hard power-law distribution. This paper also reports the SMA millimeter polarization during the flare, which shows a small, distorted, but overall clockwise-oriented Stokes Q--U loop during the third mid-infrared peak. Extrapolating the mid-infrared flux power law to the millimeter yields a variable flux consistent with the observed 220 GHz emission. These results, together with the Paper I modeling, plausibly suggest a single hotspot produced both the mid-infrared and millimeter variability during this event. However, additional flares are required to make a general statement about the millimeter and mid-infrared connection.

astro-ph.HE↗

arXiv2025

Helical Magnetic Field in the Acceleration--Collimation Zone of the M87 Jet

Relativistic jets from supermassive black holes are expected to be magnetically launched and guided, with magnetic energy systematically converted to bulk kinetic energy throughout an extended acceleration-collimation zone (ACZ). A key prediction of magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) models is a transition from poloidally dominated fields near the engine to toroidally dominated fields downstream, yet direct tests within the ACZ are hampered by weak polarization and strong Faraday rotation. We report quasi-simultaneous, high-sensitivity, multifrequency very long baseline interferometric polarimetry of M87 spanning 1.4-24.4GHz. We present high-fidelity, Faraday rotation-corrected maps of intrinsic linear polarization that continuously resolve the ACZ in the de-projected distance range of ~9e3 to ~3.6e5 gravitational radii from the black hole. The maps reveal pronounced north-south asymmetries in fractional linear polarization and electric vector position angle (EVPA), peaking in the inner ACZ at a projected distance of ~20mas along the jet and remaining prominent out to ~100mas. These signatures are best reproduced by models with a large-scale, ordered helical field that retains a substantial poloidal component-contrary to the rapid toroidal dominance expected under steady, ideal MHD. This tension implies ongoing magnetic dissipation that limits toroidal buildup over the ACZ. The handedness of the helix provides an independent constraint on the black hole's spin direction, supporting a spin vector oriented away from the observer, consistent with the orientation inferred from horizon-scale imaging. Farther downstream, the asymmetries diminish, and the EVPA and fractional polarization distributions become more symmetric; we tentatively interpret this as evolution toward a more poloidally dominated configuration, while noting current sensitivity and dynamic-range limits.

astro-ph.HE↗

arXiv2025

Discovery of an X-ray Luminous Radio-Loud Quasar at $z=3.4$: A Possible Transitional Super-Eddington Phase

We report the multiwavelength properties of eFEDS J084222.9+001000 (hereafter ID830), a quasar at $z=3.4351$, identified as the most X-ray luminous radio-loud quasar in the eROSITA Final Equatorial Depth Survey (eFEDS) field. ID830 shows a rest-frame 0.5-2 keV luminosity of $\log (L_\mathrm{0.5-2\,keV}/\mathrm{erg}~\mathrm{s}^{-1}) = 46.20 \pm 0.12$, with a steep X-ray photon index ($\Gamma =2.43 \pm 0.21$), and a significant radio counterpart detected with VLA/FIRST 1.4 GHz and VLASS 3 GHz bands. The rest-frame UV to optical spectra from SDSS and Subaru/MOIRCS $J$-band show a dust reddened quasar feature with $A_\mathrm{V} = 0.39 \pm 0.08$ mag and the expected bolometric AGN luminosity from the dust-extinction-corrected UV luminosity reaches $L_\mathrm{bol,3000}= (7.62 \pm 0.31) \times 10^{46}$ erg s$^{-1}$. We estimate the black hole mass of $M_\mathrm{BH} = (4.40 \pm 0.72) \times 10^{8} M_{\odot}$ based on the MgII$\lambda$2800 emission line width, and an Eddington ratio from the dust-extinction-corrected UV continuum luminosity reaches $\lambda_\mathrm{Edd,UV}=1.44 \pm 0.24$ and $\lambda_{\mathrm{Edd,X}} = 12.8 \pm 3.9$ from the X-ray luminosity, both indicating the super-Eddington accretion. ID830 shows a high ratio of UV-to-X-ray luminosities, $\alpha_\mathrm{OX}=-1.20 \pm 0.07$ (or $\alpha_\mathrm{OX}=-1.42 \pm 0.07$ after correcting for jet-linked X-ray excess), higher than quasars and little red dots in super-Eddington phase with similar UV luminosities, with $\alpha_\mathrm{OX}<-1.8$. Such a high $\alpha_\mathrm{OX}$ suggests the coexistence of a prominent radio jet and X-ray corona, in this high Eddington accretion phase. We propose that ID830 may be in a transitional phase after an accretion burst, evolving from a super-Eddington to a sub-Eddington state, which could naturally describe the high $\alpha_\mathrm{OX}$.

astro-ph.GA↗

arXiv2025

Jet Collimation Profile of Low-Luminosity AGN M84: Insight into the Jet Formation in the Low Accretion Regime

Recent advancements in high-resolution Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) have significantly improved our understanding of jet collimation near supermassive black holes in active galactic nuclei (AGNs), particularly in high-power systems. However, the collimation properties of jets in low-luminosity AGNs (LLAGNs) remain poorly explored. In this study, we investigate the jet structure of M84, a nearby radio galaxy and a representative LLAGN, to probe jet collimation properties in a low-accretion regime. Utilizing astrometric phase-referencing observations from the Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA), supplemented by archival Very Large Array (VLA) data, we trace the jet geometry of M84 over a broad range of scales, from approximately 10^2 to 10^7 Schwarzschild radii (rs). Our analysis reveals a well-defined transition from a semi-parabolic profile, W(r) proportional to r^0.71, to a conical shape, W(r) proportional to r^1.16, occurring at approximately 1.67 x 10^4 rs. This indicates that the M84 jet is notably less collimated than those in other known LLAGN sources. Our findings provide new insights into the relationship between jet collimation and accretion rate, offering crucial constraints for jet formation models in LLAGNs.

astro-ph.HE↗

arXiv2025

Sub-Parsec Acceleration and Collimation of NGC 4261's Twin Jets

We report the first robust evidence for a co-spatial sub-parsec acceleration and collimation zone (ACZ) in the twin jets of the nearby low-luminosity active galactic nucleus (LLAGN) NGC 4261. This result is derived from multifrequency Very Long Baseline Array imaging, combined with the frequency-dependent properties of the radio core (core shift and core size) and jet kinematics determined from the jet-to-counterjet brightness ratio. By applying multiple analysis methods and incorporating results from the literature, we identify a parabolic-to-conical structural transition in both the jet and counterjet, with the transition occurring at $(1.23\pm0.24)$ pc or $(8.1\pm1.6)\times10^3 R_{\rm s}$ (Schwarzschild radii) for the jet and $(0.97\pm0.29)$ pc or $(6.4\pm1.9)\times10^3 R_{\rm s}$ for the counterjet. We also derive the jet velocity field at distances of $\sim (10^3-2\times10^4) R_{\rm s}$. While local kinematic variations are present, the jet shows an overall acceleration to relativistic speeds from $\sim 10^3$ to $\sim8\times10^3 R_{\rm s}$, with a maximum Lorentz factor of $\Gamma_{\rm max} \approx 2.6$. Beyond this region, the jet gradually decelerates to sub-relativistic speeds. These findings support the existence of a sub-parsec-scale ($\lesssim 1.5$ pc) ACZ in NGC 4261, where the jet is accelerated via magnetic-to-kinetic energy conversion while being confined by external pressure. A brief comparison with M 87 suggests that the ACZ in NGC 4261 may represent a scaled-down analogue of that in M 87. These results point towards a potential diversity in jet ACZ properties, emphasizing the importance of extending such studies to a broader AGN population to elucidate the physical mechanisms at play.

astro-ph.GA↗

arXiv2025

Constraining the Mass of a Hypothetical Secondary Black Hole in M87 with the NANOGrav 15-Year Data Set

Galaxy mergers, each hosting a supermassive black hole (SMBH), are thought to form SMBH binaries. Motivated by recent observations from the East Asian VLBI Network (EAVN) showing periodic behavior in the M87 jet, a precession of about 11 years and a transverse oscillation of about 0.9 years, we constrain the mass of a hypothetical secondary black hole orbiting the primary SMBH in M87. To constrain the mass ratio between the primary SMBH ($M_{1}$) and the secondary black hole ($M_{2}$) defined as $q \equiv M_{2}/M_{1} \leq 1$, and the length of the semimajor axis of the binary system ($a$), we impose the following three constraints: (i) the lower limit of $a$, below which the SMBH binary is expected to merge. (ii) the strain amplitude of the gravitational wave background (GWB) at nanohertz frequencies shown in the NANOGrav 15-year dataset. (iii) a finite length of the semimajor axis of $M_{1}$, that can induce periodic behavior in the jet. By combining these constraints, we obtain the allowed parameter space for $q$ and $a$. If either of the EAVN-detected periods ($T$) corresponds to the binary's orbital period, the allowed range of $q$ is $6.9 \times 10^{-3} \le q \le 4.2 \times 10^{-2}$ for $T \approx 11$ years, and $3.7\times 10^{-2} \le q \le 1$ for $T \approx 0.9$ years. VLBI astrometric monitoring of the jet base of M87 is essential to explore the allowed parameter space for $q$ and $a$.

astro-ph.HE↗

arXiv2025

Origin of the ring ellipticity in the black hole images of M87*

We investigate the origin of the elliptical ring structure observed in the images of the supermassive black hole M87*, aiming to disentangle contributions from gravitational, astrophysical, and imaging effects. Leveraging the enhanced capabilities of the Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) 2018 array, including improved $(u,v)$-coverage from the Greenland Telescope, we measure the ring's ellipticity using five independent imaging methods, obtaining a consistent average value of $\tau = 0.08_{-0.02}^{+0.03}$ with a position angle $\xi = 50.1_{-7.6}^{+6.2}$ degrees. To interpret this measurement, we compare against General Relativistic Magnetohydrodynamic (GRMHD) simulations spanning a wide range of physical parameters including thermal or non-thermal electron distribution function, spins, and ion-to-electron temperature ratios in both low and high-density regions. We find no statistically significant correlation between spin and ellipticity in GRMHD images. Instead, we identify a correlation between ellipticity and the fraction of non-ring emission, particularly in non-thermal models and models with higher jet emission. These results indicate that the ellipticity measured from the \m87 emission structure is consistent with that expected from simulations of turbulent accretion flows around black holes, where it is dominated by astrophysical effects rather than gravitational ones. Future high-resolution imaging, including space very long baseline interferometry and long-term monitoring, will be essential to isolate gravitational signatures from astrophysical effects.

astro-ph.HE↗