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arXiv2026

Toward Decentralized Carbon Trading in Indonesia: A Public-Blockchain Architecture for Tokenized Real-World Assets

Indonesia has established a regulated carbon market supported by national registry infrastructure and the IDXCarbon exchange. Carbon units can be issued, recorded, traded, and retired within this framework. IDXCarbon currently uses a private blockchain for its trading infrastructure. This creates an opportunity to examine how Indonesian carbon credits could also be represented and traded through public blockchain infrastructure. This study proposes an architecture for tokenizing Indonesian carbon credits as real-world assets (RWAs), with particular focus on Sertifikat Pengurangan Emisi Gas Rumah Kaca (SPE-GRK). The proposed architecture retains the Sistem Registri Unit Karbon (SRUK) as the authoritative source of carbon-unit status. It introduces a public-blockchain layer for token representation and programmable transactions. The architecture is designed to support lifecycle management, token-based asset representation, public observability of token activity, interoperability, wallet-based transactions, and programmable settlement. The architecture consists of four layers: the authoritative carbon layer, the registry interoperability and tokenization layer, the public-blockchain RWA layer, and the market and application layer. Access to the tokenized carbon assets remains regulated. Token issuance and transfers are linked to participant eligibility and registry status. Retirement also remains dependent on the authoritative carbon registry. The proposed architecture provides a framework for introducing public-blockchain RWA infrastructure into Indonesia's existing carbon market while maintaining SRUK authority and existing market-integrity controls.

cs.CE↗

arXiv2026

Beyond TVL: An Explainable Risk Scoring Framework for Tokenized Real-World Assets

Tokenized real-world assets (RWAs) are often evaluated through headline indicators such as total value locked (TVL) or on-chain asset value. However, a large asset base does not necessarily imply low risk, since tokenized assets may remain illiquid, weakly traded, or highly concentrated among a small number of holders. Using public data from RWA.xyz, this paper develops an empirical and explainable risk scoring framework for tokenized RWA markets. The framework evaluates three dimensions of risk: liquidity risk $L$, concentration risk $C$, and market-quality risk $M$. These risk dimensions are constructed from observable indicators, including turnover, holder distribution, active-address activity, transfer frequency, and network concentration measured through Herfindahl indices. The analysis shows that several RWA tokens with substantial on-chain value exhibit high empirical risk because they combine limited transfer activity, low turnover, and concentrated ownership structures. In contrast, assets with broader participation and stronger on-chain activity display lower liquidity and concentration risk, even when their headline asset values are smaller. The findings demonstrate that TVL alone can obscure important risks in tokenized asset markets. By providing a transparent and data-driven risk scoring approach, this paper contributes to the empirical assessment of RWA liquidity and offers a practical basis for comparing tokenized assets beyond headline valuation metrics.

cs.CE↗