Fast proton transport and neutron production in proton therapy using Fourier neural operators
Objective: Real-time adaptive proton range verification systems based on produced neutrons require accurate information on their non-isotropic momentum distributions within short times, for which Monte Carlo (MC) methods are too computationally expensive. We present a surrogate model based on Fourier Neural Operators (FNO) for fast prediction of angle- and energy-resolved proton transport and neutron production within proton therapy. Approach: We treat the irradiated phantom and the proton beam's state as depth-evolving series, respectively of different materials, and of spatial, angular and energy phase space density distributions. The task is solved auto-regressively by learning changes in the distributions of protons and those of produced neutrons. For training and evaluation, two datasets of 47 MC simulations featuring different primary intensities were produced. Simulated geometries were extracted from a thoracic CT scan as series of laterally homogeneous materials. Main Results: An average relative $L^2$ discrepancy of 0.067 and 0.137 was achieved by the predicted proton and neutron distributions, respectively. This corresponded to an average gamma passing rate in the spatial distributions of 99.95$\%$ and 99.40$\%$. Training with higher primary intensities led to improvements between 12$\%$ and 30$\%$ in density metrics. Inference over depths of 40 cm at a resolution of 0.5 mm required on average 23.17 s per beam. Significance: The proposed proton beam surrogate generates accurate spatial and momentum distributions of neutrons at MC-level accuracy within seconds, while demonstrating robust generalization with respect to irradiated geometry and beam characteristics. This approach can be used for prototyping and operation of range verification systems, other tasks such as neutron dose estimation, and can be extended to include other kinds of secondary emissions.