Validation of Subject-Specific Knee Models from In Vivo Measurements
Calibration to experimental data is vital when developing subject-specific models towards developing digital twins. Yet, to date, subject-specific models are largely based on cadaveric testing, as in vivo data to calibrate against has been difficult to obtain until recently. To support our overall goal of building subject-specific models of the living knee, we aimed to show that subject-specific computational models built and calibrated using in vivo measurements would have accuracy comparable to models built using in vitro measurements. Two knee specimens were imaged using a combination of computed tomography (CT), and surface scans. Knee laxity measurements were made with a custom apparatus used for the living knee and from a robotic knee simulator. Models of the knees were built using the CT geometry and surface scans, and then calibrated with either laxity data from the robotic knee simulator or from the knee laxity apparatus. Model performance was compared by simulation of passive flexion, knee laxity and a clinically relevant pivot shift. Performance was similar with differences during simulated anterior-posterior laxity tests of less than 2.5 mm. Additionally, model predictions of a pivot shift were similar with differences less than 3 deg or 3 mm for rotations and translations, respectively. Still, differences in the predicted ligament loads and calibrated material properties emerged, highlighting a need for methods to include ligament load as part of the underlying calibration process. Overall, the results showed that currently available methods of measuring knee laxity in vivo are sufficient to calibrate models comparable with existing in vitro techniques, and the workflows described here may provide a basis for modeling the living knee. The models, data, and code are publicly available.