The First Observations of Moonlit Satellites
Optical Space Domain Awareness (SDA) operations have traditionally relied on Sunlit passes near the terminator, limiting continuous tracking of low-Earth orbit (LEO) satellites. In this work, we show that by accounting for all four major illumination sources: Sunlight, Earthshine, Moonlight, and Lunar-Earthshine, large LEO satellites like the ISS can be optically monitored for a full 24 hour period. We present what we believe to be the first quantitative observations of the International Space Station (ISS) and Chinese Space Station (CSS) illuminated only by Moonlight and Lunar-Earthshine under night-time conditions. Using a 0.6 m telescope, we obtain 147 detections of the ISS with a median brightness of V = $12.02 \pm 0.17$ mag, approximately $13.1 \pm 1.3$ magnitudes fainter than in daylight. For interpretation, we extend a satellite brightness model based on reflected Sun light (lumos-sat) to include Moonlight and Lunar-Earthshine, and validate this model both against the new observations and independent Ansys Systems Tool Kit simulations, achieving residuals of $0.03 \pm 0.80$ mag. The simulations confirm that Lunar-Earthshine dominates the illumination of nadir- facing components, boosting their radiance by at least 100 times relative to Starlight alone. Applying this validated model to existing and proposed large satellites, we show that Moonlight and Lunar-Earthshine will make these future spacecraft well within detection limits of even modest ($\sim 0.6$ m) optical SDA systems for most of the night, and for up to $\sim 11$ nights per lunar month at local midnight. When Moonlit observations are combined with daytime and twilight observations, this enables near-continuous ($\sim 24$ h) optical monitoring of LEO satellites from a single site, significantly increasing SDA tracking capabilities.