arXiv subjects

M. Benisty

Publications and source records attributed to M. Benisty.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

arXiv2026

An analysis of the Herbig star population and their protoplanetary disks within 1 kpc

Herbig stars are intermediate mass pre-main sequence stars of 1.5 to $\sim15$~M$_\odot$ and are in between low and high-mass star formation. This work provides a catalog of all 243 known bona-fide Herbig stars with clear infrared excess and in many cases accretion signatures within 1~kpc. It contains archival, recalibrated, and newly derived stellar parameters, accretion rate properties, and disk dust mass measurements. We derive the latter by using newly obtained millimeter photometry and literature values. We find that 50\% of Herbig dust disks are more massive than 10~M$_\oplus$, while this is only true for 20\% and 5\% of the T~Tauri disks in Lupus and Upper~Scorpius respectively. Furthermore, the Herbig disk dust mass distribution is bimodal, it consists of a high and low disk mass population with a mean dust mass of 21~M$_\oplus$ and 0.45~M$_\oplus$ respectively. We find that the catalog is near complete for within 300~pc, however, this decreases to 24\% out to 1~kpc. We observe a flat relation for Herbig disks due to objects with short disk lifetimes, caused by a combination of low disk masses and high accretion rates. Furthermore, we find the peak of the occurrence rate of massive (>10~M$_\oplus$) disks to occur at $\sim$1-2~M$_\odot$ stars, coinciding with the peak in occurrence rate of giant exoplanets. The small number of Herbig stars with low accretion rates ($<10^{-8}$~M$_\odot$~yr$^{-1}$) or low disk dust masses ($\lesssim1$~M$_\oplus$), combined with the lack of an age dependence in the disk dust mass distribution, suggests that the observed Herbig star population represents the surviving disk-hosting phase in the optically visible late stages of intermediate-mass star formation. We argue that this is either due to the formation of deep dust traps in these disks or replenishment by late-infall, or a combination of the two.

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arXiv2026

Two inner dust clumps in PDS 70. A third protoplanet traced by trojan material or a substructured inner disk?

The PDS 70 cavity hosts two confirmed directly imaged protoplanets and a third inner planet candidate at 13au, labeled PDS 70 d. Despite its Keplerian motion, its unusually blue spectrum challenges a planetary interpretation. We further investigate the presence and nature of a third inner planet using new SPHERE and GRAVITY+ observations. Using the star-hopping strategy, we obtained coronagraphic IRDIS polarimetric observations in the H-band, and non-coronagraphic observations with IRDIFS in the YJHK-bands. We also searched for a planetary signal with GRAVITY in the 4UT configuration. We consistently detect two elongated inner emissions with SPHERE: the previously proposed planet candidate and another feature that appears to share the same orbit while leading it by ~120$^\circ$. Both features show dust-scattered-light spectra but different colors, possibly indicating different grain sizes. Such configuration is consistent with co-orbital dust accumulated at the stable Lagrangian regions of a distinct and yet undetected planet. GRAVITY yields a marginal (3$\sigma$) detection at the predicted location along the same orbit ($\rho=76.2\pm0.29$mas, PA=$226.50\pm0.21^\circ$), and consistent with a ~3$M_{\rm Jup}$ planet. This planet-like signal is aligned with a narrow shadow that we detect in the outer disk. We also detect polarized emission very close to the star likely arising from the inner disk. The apparent embedding of the two dust clumps within it motivates an inner-disk origin as an alternative scenario. We conclude that the previously reported third planet candidate traces a dust clump either trailing an unseen planet on the same orbit or a rotating substructure within the inner disk. Further observations are needed to test these scenarios. Confirming the new GRAVITY planet-like signal would support co-orbital substructures as indirect tracers of protoplanets.

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arXiv2026

The Circumbinary Disk of HD 34700A: I. CO gas kinematics indicate spirals, infall, and vortex motions

We present the first high-resolution ($\sim$ 0.14") Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) Band 6 dust continuum and CO molecular line emission observations of the quadruple system HD 34700. In particular, HD 34700AaAb is a spectroscopic binary ($M_{\rm{bin}}=4\,M_\odot$) surrounded by two low-mass companions at large separations. Its circumbinary disk is highly substructured, featuring numerous spiral arms and a large cavity observed in infrared (IR) scattered light. We analyzed the CO line channel and intensity moment maps. By fitting a Keplerian model to the line channel emission, we identified the residual motions and conducted a line spectra analysis. We resolved an asymmetric continuum crescent on top of a dust ring at 0.39" (138 au), colocated with the IR ring. The CO molecule line emissions trace a smaller cavity in gas, whose edge aligns with the inner rim of the ring detected in H$\alpha$ emission at 0.20" (65 au). The $^{12}$CO line emission and kinematics trace highly non-Keplerian motions ($\sim0.1\Delta\upsilon_{\rm kep}$), and these CO spiral features align well with the spiral structures in scattered light. The $^{12}$CO line spectra analysis reveals a streamer above the southeastern disk plane, likely falling onto the disk. The $^{13}$CO and C$^{18}$O kinematics largely follow the disk's underlying Keplerian rotation, while $^{13}$CO exhibits tentative signs of anticyclonic vortex flows at the continuum crescent location. Our multimolecular line study suggests that the circumbinary disk of HD 34700A is highly perturbed in its upper layers, possibly warped and influenced by infalling material. While late-stage infall may account for the IR spirals and the formation of the vortex through Rossby wave instability, an embedded massive companion within the cavity may also contribute to these features.

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arXiv2025

Why the Northern Hemisphere Needs a 30-40 m Telescope and the Science at Stake. How do Planetary Systems Form?

The detection and characterization of protoplanets in protoplanetary disks around young stars is emerging as a transformative field that will redefine our understanding of how planetary systems form. While current facilities have revealed the diversity of mature exoplanets and the complex structures of disks, we still lack the crucial observational link between them: a statistically meaningful census of planets caught in the act of formation. This white paper argues that such a breakthrough requires access to the nearest and most informative star-forming regions, roughly half of which are poorly accessible or entirely unreachable from Cerro Armazones. Although the ELT alone will strongly impact our knowledge of planet formation, its location prevents Europe from fully exploiting the necessary parameter space. A 30-40 m telescope in the northern hemisphere is therefore essential for obtaining diffraction-limited imaging of protoplanets and disks across the entire sky, enabling robust demographics, exploiting synergies with ngVLA, Gaia, and other facilities covering the north, and ensuring that Europe remains at the forefront of the planet-formation revolution in the coming decades.

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arXiv2025

Exomoon search with VLTI/GRAVITY around the substellar companion HD 206893 B

Direct astrometric detection of exomoons remains unexplored. This study presents the first application of high-precision astrometry to search for exomoons around substellar companions. We investigate whether the orbital motion of the companion HD 206893 B exhibits astrometric residuals consistent with the gravitational influence of an exomoon or binary planet. Using the VLTI/GRAVITY instrument, we monitored the astrometric positions of HD 206893 B and c across both short (days to months) and long (yearly) timescales. This enabled us to isolate potential residual wobbles in the motion of component B attributable to an orbiting moon. Our analysis reveals tentative astrometric residuals in the HD 206893 B orbit. If interpreted as an exomoon signature, these residuals correspond to a candidate (HD 206893 B I) with an orbital period of approximately 0.76 years and a mass of $\sim$0.4 Jupiter masses. However, the origin of these residuals remains ambiguous and could be due to systematics. Complementing the astrometry, our analysis of GRAVITY $R=4000$ spectroscopy for HD 206893 B confirms a clear detection of water, but no CO is found using cross-correlation. We also find that AF Lep b, and $\beta$ Pic b are the best short-term candidates to look for moons with GRAVITY+. Our observations demonstrate the transformative potential of high-precision astrometry in the search for exomoons, and proves the feasibility of the technique to detect moons with masses lower than Jupiter and potentially down to less than Neptune in optimistic cases. Crucially, further high-precision astrometric observations with VLTI/GRAVITY are essential to verify the reality and nature of this signal and attempt this technique on a variety of planetary systems.

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arXiv2025

Zooming into the water snowline: high resolution water observations of the HL Tau disk

Water is one of the central molecules for the formation and habitability of planets. In particular, the region where water freezes-out, the water snowline, could be a favorable location to form planets in protoplanetary disks. We use high resolution ALMA observations to spatially resolve H$_2$O, H$^{13}$CO$^+$ and SO emission in the HL Tau disk. A rotational diagram analysis is used to characterize the water reservoir seen with ALMA and compare this to the reservoir visible at mid- and far-IR wavelengths. We find that the H$_2$O 183 GHz line has a compact central component and a diffuse component that is seen out to ~75 au. A radially resolved rotational diagram shows that the excitation temperature of the water is ~350 K independent of radius. The steep drop in the water brightness temperature outside the central beam of the observations where the emission is optically thick is consistent with the water snowline being located inside the central beam ($\lesssim 6$ au) at the height probed by the observations. Comparing the ALMA lines to those seen at shorter wavelengths shows that only 0.02%-2% of the water reservoir is visible at mid- and far-IR wavelengths, respectively, due to optically thick dust hiding the emission whereas 35-70% is visible with ALMA. An anti-correlation between the H$_2$O and H$^{13}$CO$^+$ emission is found but this is likely caused by optically thick dust hiding the H$^{13}$CO$^+$ emission in the disk center. Finally, we see SO emission tracing the disk and for the first time in SO a molecular outflow and the infalling streamer out to ~2". The velocity structure hints at a possible connection between the SO and the H$_2$O emission. Spatially resolved observations of H$_2$O lines at (sub-)mm wavelengths provide valuable constraints on the location of the water snowline, while probing the bulk of the gas-phase reservoirs.

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arXiv2025

The dance of dust: Investigating young stellar object dipper variability

The dipper subclass of YSOs are characterised by frequent dips in their light curves. Irregular dippers do not show periodic signatures and have dips accounting for significant proportions of their photospheric flux. Given the short timescales on which these dips occur, their driving mechanisms are linked to the inner circumstellar disc dynamics. We present the first multi-epoch analysis of 16 irregular dippers observed with X-Shooter. Investigating the properties of their dips, and in particular the analysis of the dust characteristics, we aim to understand the root of their variability, and get a glimpse of the inner disc behaviour. We employed a novel approach to measure the properties of the dips, by combining class III templates with Gaia photometry to construct the intrinsic photospheres. We measured several dip properties including the depth of the dips, near-infrared (NIR) excesses, and their optical depths as a function of wavelength. We record 20 significant dips that range in their dip properties and show no relation to one another. In almost all cases, the low optical depths and small NIR excesses are observed. Comparison of their optical depths with grain opacity models show that the dips can be explained by the presence of dust substructures containing processed grains obscuring their photospheres and/or their discs. These grain distributions can have maximum sizes as large as 20$\mu m$ and in many cases have almost grey-like extinction, while some require a strong scattering component. The findings highlight the extent of the irregularity of dippers, but also link it to the dust dynamics in the inner regions of circumstellar discs. The dust substructures causing the variability require processed dust grains to be lifted above the disc into the line of sight. Possible lifting mechanisms including disc winds, unstable accretion columns, and disc warps are discussed.

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arXiv2025

The ExoGRAVITY survey: A K-band spectral library of giant exoplanet and brown dwarf companions

Direct observations of exoplanet and brown dwarf companions with near-infrared interferometry, first enabled by the dual-field mode of VLTI/GRAVITY, provide unique measurements of the objects' orbital motions and atmospheric compositions. Here, we compile a homogeneous library of all exoplanet and brown dwarf K-band spectra observed by GRAVITY thus far. We re-reduced all the available GRAVITY dual-field high-contrast data and, where companions are detected, extract their ~2.0-2.4 $\mu$m K-band contrast spectra. We then derived stellar model atmospheres for all employed flux references, which we used to convert the companion contrast into companion flux spectra. Solely from the resulting GRAVITY spectra, we extracted spectral types, spectral indices, and bulk physical properties for all companions. Finally, and with the help of age constraints from the literature, we also derived isochronal masses for most companions using evolutionary models. The resulting library contains R ~ 500 GRAVITY spectra of 39 substellar companions from late M to late T spectral types, including the entire L-T transition. Throughout this transition, a shift from CO-dominated late M- and L-type dwarfs to CH4-dominated T-type dwarfs can be observed in the K-band. The GRAVITY spectra alone constrain the objects' bolometric luminosity to typically within $\pm$0.15 dex. The derived isochronal masses agree with dynamical masses from the literature where available, except for HD 4113 c for which we confirm its previously reported potential underluminosity. Medium-resolution spectroscopy of substellar companions with GRAVITY provides insight into the carbon chemistry and the cloudiness of these objects' atmospheres. It also constrains these objects' bolometric luminosities which can yield measurements of their formation entropy if combined with dynamical masses, for instance from Gaia and GRAVITY astrometry.

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arXiv2025

Direct Measurement of Extinction in a Planet-Hosting Gap

Recent disk observations have revealed multiple indirect signatures of forming gas giant planets, but high-contrast imaging has rarely confirmed the presence of the suspected perturbers. Here, we exploit a unique opportunity provided by the background star AS209bkg, which shines through a wide annular gap in the AS209 disk, to perform transmission spectrophotometry and directly measure the extinction from gap material for the first time. By combining new VLT/SPHERE and JWST/NIRCam observations with archival HST data from 2005, we model the spectral energy distribution (SED) of AS209bkg over a 19-year baseline. We find that the SED and its variability are best explained by increasing extinction along the line of sight as AS209bkg approaches the gap edge in projection. The extinction is best described by a combination of ISM-like extinction component and a grey extinction component. This points to the presence of grains in the disk outer gap that are larger than in the ISM. We find that the extinction in the gap at $\lambda\sim4.0~\mu$m is $A_{4\,\mu\mathrm{m}} = 2.7^{+0.7}_{-0.7}$ mag, while at H$\alpha$ ($\lambda=0.656~\mu$m), where most searches for accretion signatures take place, the extinction could be as high as $A_\mathrm{H\alpha} = 4.2^{+0.9}_{-1.2}$ mag ($A_V=4.6^{+1.0}_{-1.3}$ mag). This suggests that even wide, deep gaps can significantly obscure emission from protoplanets, even those following a hot-start evolutionary model. Our extinction measurements help reconcile the discrepancy between ALMA-based predictions of planet-disk interactions and the non-detections from sensitive optical and near-infrared imaging campaigns.

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arXiv2025

First Light for the GRAVITY+ Adaptive Optics: Extreme Adaptive Optics for the Very Large Telescope Interferometer

GRAVITY+ improves by orders of magnitude the sensitivity, sky-coverage and contrast of the Very Large Telescope Interferometer (VLTI). A central part of this project is the development of Gravity Plus Adaptive Optics (GPAO), a dedicated high-order and laser-guide star Adaptive Optics (AO) system for VLTI. GPAO consists of four state-of-the-art AO systems equipping all 8m-class Unit Telescopes (UTs) for the wavefront correction of the VLTI instruments. It offers both visible and infrared Natural Guide Star (NGS) and Laser Guide Star (LGS) operations. The paper presents the design, operations and performances of GPAO. We illustrate the improvement brought by GPAO with interferometric observations obtained during the commissioning of the NGS mode end-2024. These science results include the first optical interferometry observations of a redshift $z\sim4$ quasar, the spectroscopy of a cool brown-dwarf with magnitude $K\sim 21.0$, the first observations of a Class I young star with GRAVITY, and the first sub-micro arcsecond differential astrometry in the optical. Together with the entire GRAVITY+ project, the implementation of GPAO is a true paradigm shift for observing the optical Universe at very high angular resolution.

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arXiv2025

Direct imaging discovery of a young giant planet orbiting on Solar System scales

HD 135344 AB is a young visual binary system that is best known for the protoplanetary disk around the secondary star. The circumstellar environment of the A0-type primary star, on the other hand, is already depleted. HD 135344 A is therefore an ideal target for the exploration of recently formed giant planets because it is not obscured by dust. We searched for and characterized substellar companions to HD 135344 A down to separations of about 10 au. We observed HD 135344 A with VLT/SPHERE in the $H23$ and $K12$ bands and obtained $YJ$ and $YJH$ spectroscopy. In addition, we carried out VLTI/GRAVITY observations for the further astrometric and spectroscopic confirmation of a detected companion. We discovered a close-in young giant planet, HD 135344 Ab, with a mass of about 10 $M_\mathrm{J}$. The multi-epoch astrometry confirms the bound nature based on common parallax and common proper motion. This firmly rules out the scenario of a non-stationary background star. The semi-major axis of the planetary orbit is approximately 15-20 au, and the photometry is consistent with that of a mid L-type object. The inferred atmospheric and bulk parameters further confirm the young and planetary nature of the companion. HD 135344 Ab is one of the youngest directly imaged planets that has fully formed and orbits on Solar System scales. It is a valuable target for studying the early evolution and atmosphere of a giant planet that could have formed in the vicinity of the snowline.

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arXiv2025

Disk Evolution Study Through Imaging of Nearby Young Stars (DESTINYS): Evidence of planet-disk interaction in the 2MASSJ16120668-3010270 system

The architectures of exoplanet systems are likely set during the initial planet-formation phase in the circumstellar disk. To understand this process, we have to study the earliest phases of planet formation. Complex sub-structures, believed to be driven by embedded planets, have been detected in a significant portion of disks observed at high angular resolution. We aim to extend the sample of such disks to low stellar masses and to connect the disk morphology to the expected proto-planet properties. We resolve the disk in the 2MASSJ16120668-3010270 system for the first time in scattered near-infrared light on scales of 10 au using VLT/SPHERE and reveal an exceptionally structured disk. We find an inner disk (inside 40 au) with two spiral arms, separated by a gap from an outer ring. By comparison with hydrodynamic models, we find that these structures are consistent with the presence of an embedded gas giant with a mass range between 0.1 and 5 MJup depending on the employed model. Our SPHERE observations find a tentative candidate point source within the disk gap, which may be consistent with this mass range if it indeed traces thermal emission by an embedded planet. This interpretation is somewhat strengthened by the proximity of this signal to compact mm continuum emission in the disk gap, which may trace circumplanetary material. It is, however, unclear if this tentative companion candidate could be responsible for the observed disk gap size, given its close proximity to the inner disk. The 2MASSJ16120668-3010270 system is one of only a few systems that shows this exceptional morphology of spiral arms located inside a scattered light gap and ring. We speculate that this may have to do with a higher disk viscosity compared with other systems such as PDS 70.

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arXiv2025

Radial variations in nitrogen, carbon, and hydrogen fractionation in the PDS 70 planet-hosting disk

Element isotopic ratios are powerful tools to reconstruct the journey of planetary material, from the parental molecular cloud to protoplanetary disks, where planets form and accrete their atmosphere. Radial variations in isotopic ratios in protoplanetary disks reveal local pathways which can critically affect the degree of isotope fractionation of planetary material. In this work we present spatially-resolved profiles of the 14N/15N, 12C/13C, and D/H isotopic ratios of the HCN molecule in the PDS 70 disk, which hosts two actively-accreting giant planets. ALMA high spatial resolution observations of HCN, H13CN, HC15N, and DCN reveal radial variations of fractionation profiles. We extract the HCN/HC15N ratio out to ~120 au, which shows a decreasing trend outside the inner cavity wall of the PDS 70 disk located at ~50 au. We suggest that the radial variations observed in the HCN/HC15N ratio are linked to isotope selective photodissociation of N2. We leverage the spectrally resolved hyperfine component of the HCN line to extract the radial profile of the HCN/H13CN ratio between ~40 and 90 au, obtaining a value consistent with the ISM 12C/13C ratio. The deuteration profile is also mostly constant throughout the disk extent, with a DCN/HCN ratio ~0.02, in line with other disk-averaged values and radial profiles in disks around T Tauri stars. The extracted radial profiles of isotopologue ratios show how different fractionation processes dominate at different spatial scales in the planet-hosting disk of PDS 70.

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arXiv2024

Gas dynamics around a Jupiter-mass planet I. Influence of protoplanetary disk properties

Giant planets grow and acquire their gas envelope during the disk phase. At the time of the discovery of giant planets in their host disk, it is important to understand the interplay between the host disk and the envelope and circum-planetary disk properties of the planet. Our aim is to investigate the dynamical and physical structure of the gas in the vicinity of a Jupiter-mass planet and study how protoplanetary disk propertiesy, determine the planetary system as well as the accretion rate inside the planet's Hill sphere.We ran global 3D simulations with the grid-based code fargOCA, using a fully radiative equation of state and a dust-to-gas ratio of 0.01. We explored three models. The nominal one features a disk with surface density, Sigma, corresponding to the MMSN at the planet's location, characterised by an alpha viscosity value of 0.004. The second model has a surface density ten times smaller than the nominal one and the same viscosity. In the third model, we also reduced the viscosity value by a factor of 10. During gap formation gas is heated by compression and cools according to opacity, density, and temperature values. In the analysis of our disks, we find that the gas flowing into the Hill sphere is approximately scaled as the product Sigma nu , as expected from viscous transport while The accretion rate is scaled as sqrt(Sigma nu ).Previous studies have shown that pressure or rotationally supported structures are formed around giant planets, depending on the equation of state (EoS) or on the opacity. In the case of a fully radiative EoS and a constant dust to gas ratio of 0.01, we find that low-mass and low-viscosity circum-stellar disks favour the formation of a rotationally supported circum-planetary disk. Gas accretion leading to the doubling time of the planetary system >10^5 years has only been found in the case of a low-viscosity disk.

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arXiv2024

The GRAVITY young stellar object survey XIV : Investigating the magnetospheric accretion-ejection processes in S CrA N

The dust- and gas-rich protoplanetary disks around young stellar systems play a key role in star and planet formation. While considerable progress has recently been made in probing these disks on large scales of a few tens of astronomical units (au), the central au needs to be more investigated. We aim at unveiling the physical processes at play in the innermost regions of the strongly accreting T Tauri Star S CrA N by means of near-infrared interferometric observations. The K-band continuum emission is well reproduced with an azimuthally-modulated dusty ring. As the star alone cannot explain the size of this sublimation front, we propose that magnetospheric accretion is an important dust-heating mechanism leading to this continuum emission. The differential analysis of the Hydrogen Br$\gamma$ line is in agreement with radiative transfer models combining magnetospheric accretion and disk winds. Our observations support an origin of the Br$\gamma$ line from a combination of (variable) accretion-ejection processes in the inner disk region.

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arXiv2024

Binary orbit and disks properties of the RW Aur system using ALMA observations

The dynamical interactions between young binaries can perturb the material distribution of their circumstellar disks, and modify the planet formation process. In order to constrain the impact and nature of the binary interaction in the RW Aur system (bound or unbound), we analyzed the circumstellar material at 1.3 mm wavelengths, as observed at multiple epochs by ALMA. We analyzed the disk properties through parametric visibility modeling, and we used this information to constrain the dust morphology and the binary orbital period. We imaged the dust continuum emission of RW Aur with a resolution of 3 au, and we find that the radius enclosing 90% of the flux (R90%) is 19 au and 14 au for RW Aur A and B, respectively. By modeling the relative distance of the disks at each epoch, we find a consistent trend of movement for the disk of RW Aur B moving away from the disk of RW Aur A at an approximate rate of 3 mas/yr (about 0.5 au/yr in sky-projected distance). By combining ALMA astrometry, historical astrometry, and the dynamical masses of each star, we constrain the RW Aur binary stars to be most likely in a high-eccentricity elliptical orbit with a clockwise prograde orientation relative to RW Aur A, although low-eccentricity hyperbolic orbits are not ruled out by the astrometry. Our analysis does not exclude the possibility of a disk collision during the last interaction, which occurred $295_{-74}^{+21}$ yr ago relative to beginning of 2024. Evidence for the close interaction is found in a tentative warp of 6 deg in the inner 3 au of the disk of RW Aur A, in the brightness temperature of both disks, and in the morphology of the gas emission. A narrow ring that peaks at 6 au around RW Aur B is suggestive of captured material from the disk around RW Aur A.

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arXiv2024

Four-of-a-kind? Comprehensive atmospheric characterisation of the HR 8799 planets with VLTI/GRAVITY

With four companions at separations from 16 to 71 au, HR 8799 is a unique target for direct imaging, presenting an opportunity for the comparative study of exoplanets with a shared formation history. Combining new VLTI/GRAVITY observations obtained within the ExoGRAVITY program with archival data, we perform a systematic atmospheric characterisation of all four planets. We explore different levels of model flexibility to understand the temperature structure, chemistry and clouds of each planet using both petitRADTRANS atmospheric retrievals and fits to self-consistent radiative-convective equilibrium models. Using Bayesian Model Averaging to combine multiple retrievals, we find that the HR 8799 planets are highly enriched in metals, with [M/H] $\gtrsim$1, and have stellar to super-stellar C/O ratios. The C/O ratio increases with increasing separation from $0.55^{+0.12}_{-0.10}$ for d to $0.78^{+0.03}_{-0.04}$ for b, with the exception of the innermost planet which has a C/O ratio of $0.87\pm0.03$. By retrieving a quench pressure and using a disequilibrium chemistry model we derive vertical mixing strengths compatible with predictions for high-metallicity, self-luminous atmospheres. Bayesian evidence comparisons strongly favour the presence of HCN in HR 8799 c and e, as well as CH$_{4}$ in HR 8799 c, with detections at $>5σ$ confidence. All of the planets are cloudy, with no evidence for patchiness. The clouds of c, d and e are best fit by silicate clouds lying above a deep iron cloud layer, while the clouds of the cooler HR 8799 b are more likely composed of Na$_{2}$S. With well defined atmospheric properties, future exploration of this system is well positioned to unveil further detail in these planets, extending our understanding of the composition, structure, and formation history of these siblings.

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arXiv2024

ALMA high-resolution observations unveil planet formation shaping molecular emission in the PDS 70 disk

With two directly detected protoplanets, the PDS 70 system is a unique source in which to study the complex interplay between forming planets and their natal environment. The large dust cavity carved by the two giant planets can affect the disk chemistry, and therefore the molecular emission morphology. On the other hand, chemical properties of the gas component of the disk are expected to leave an imprint on the planetary atmospheres. In this work, we reconstruct the emission morphology of a rich inventory of molecular tracers in the PDS 70 disk, and we look for possible chemical signatures of the two actively accreting protoplanets, PDS b and c. We leverage Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) band 6 high-angular-resolution and deep-sensitivity line emission observations, together with image and $uv$-plane techniques, to boost the detection of faint lines. We robustly detect ring-shaped emission from $^{12}$CO, $^{13}$CO, C$^{18}$O, H$^{13}$CN, HC$^{15}$N, DCN, H$_2$CO, CS, C$_2$H, and H$^{13}$CO$^{+}$ lines in unprecedented detail. Most of the molecular tracers show a peak of the emission inside the millimeter dust peak. We interpret this as the direct impact of the effective irradiation of the cavity wall, as a result of the planet formation process. Moreover, we have found evidence of an O-poor gas reservoir in the outer disk, which is supported by the observations of bright C-rich molecules, the non-detection of SO, and a lower limit on the $\mathrm{CS/SO}$ ratio of $\sim1$. Eventually, we provide the first detection of the c-C$_3$H$_2$ transitions at 218.73 GHz, and the marginal detection of an azimuthal asymmetry in the higher-energy H$_2$CO (3$_{2,1}$-2$_{2,0}$) line, which could be due to accretion heating near PDS 70b.

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