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M. Wardle

Publications and source records attributed to M. Wardle.

At least 73 records · Page 4Linked to original sources

The Variability of Polarized Radiation from Sgr A*

Sgr A* is variable at radio and submillimeter wavelengths on hourly time scales showing time delays between the peaks of flare emission as well as linearly polarized emission at millimeter and sub-mm wavelengths. To determine the polarization characteristics of this variable source at radio frequencies, we present VLA observations of Sgr A* and report the detection of polarized emission at a level of 0.77\pm0.01% and 0.2\pm0.01% at 43 and 22 GHz, respectively. The change in the time averaged polarization angle between 22 and 43 GHz corresponds to a RM of -2.5\pm0.6 x10^3 rad m{-2} with no phase wrapping (or \sim 5x10^4 rad m^2 with 2πphase wrap). We also note a rise and fall time scale of 1.5 -- 2 hours in the total polarized intensity. The light curves of the degree of linearly polarized emission suggests a a correlation with the variability of the total intensity at 43 GHz. The available polarization data at radio and sub-mm wavelengths suggest that the rotation measure decreases with decreasing frequency. This frequency dependence, and observed changes in polarization angle during flare events, may be caused by the reduction in rotation measure associated with the expansion of synchrotron-emitting blobs.

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Cosmic-Ray Heating of Molecular Gas in the Nuclear Disk: Low Star Formation Efficiency

Understanding the processes occurring in the nuclear disk of our Galaxy is interesting in its own right, as part of the Milky Way Galaxy, but also because it is the closest galactic nucleus. It has been more than two decades since it was recognized that the general phenomenon of higher gas temperature in the inner few hundred parsecs by comparison with local clouds in the disk of the Galaxy. This is one of the least understood characteristics of giant molecular clouds having a much higher gas temperature than dust temperature in the inner few degrees of the Galactic center. We propose that an enhanced flux of cosmic-ray electrons, as evidenced recently by a number of studies, are responsible for directly heating the gas clouds in the nuclear disk, elevating the temperature of molecular gas ($\sim$ 75K) above the dust temperature ($\sim$ 20K). In addition we report the detection of nonthermal radio emission from Sgr B2-F based on low-frequency GMRT and VLA observations. The higher ionization fraction and thermal energy due to the impact of nonthermal electrons in star forming sites have important implications in slowing down star formation in the nuclear disk of our galaxy and nuclei of galaxies.

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Extended OH(1720 MHz) Maser Emission from Supernova Remnants

Compact OH(1720 MHz) masers have proven to be excellent signposts for the interaction of supernova remnants with adjacent molecular clouds. Less appreciated has been the weak, extended OH(1720 MHz) emission which accompanies strong compact maser sources. Recent single-dish and interferometric observations reveal the majority of maser-emitting supernova remnants have accompanying regions of extended maser emission. Enhanced OH abundance created by the passing shock is observed both as maser emission and absorption against the strong background of the remnant. Modeling the observed OH profiles gives an estimate of the physical conditions in which weak, extended maser emission arises. I will discuss how we can realize the utility of this extended maser emission, particularly the potential to measure the strength of the post-shock magnetic field via Zeeman splitting over these large-scales.

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Masers as Probes of Massive Star Formation in the Nuclear Disk

OH(1720 MHz) and methanol masers are now recognized to be excellent probes of the interactions of supernova remnants with molecular clouds and tracers of massive star formation, respectively. To better understand the nature of star formation activity in the central region of the Galaxy, we have used these two classes of masers combined with the IRAC and MIPS data to study prominent sites of ongoing star formation in the nuclear disk. The nuclear disk is characterized by massive GMCs with elevated gas temperatures, compared to their dust temperatures. We note an association between methanol masers and a class of mid-infrared ``green sources''. These highly embedded YSOs show enhanced 4.5micron emission due to excited molecular lines. The distribution of methanol masers and supernova remnants suggest a low efficiency of star formation (with the exception of Sgr B2), which we believe is due to an enhanced flux of cosmic ray electrons impacting molecular clouds in the nuclear disk. We also highlight the importance of cosmic rays in their ability to heat molecular clouds, and thus increase the gas temperature.

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Flaring Activity of Sgr A*: Expanding Hot Blobs

Sgr A* is considered to be a massive black hole at the Galactic center and is known to be variable in radio, millimeter, near-IR and X-rays. Recent multi-wavelength observing campaigns show a simultaneous X-ray and near-IR flare, as well as sub-millimeter and near-IR flares from Sgr A*. The flare activity is thought to be arising from the innermost region of Sgr A*. We have recently argued that the duration of flares in near-IR and submillimeter wavelengths implies that the burst of emission expands and cools on a dynamical time scale before the flares leave Sgr A*. The detection of radio flares with a time delay in the range of 20 and 40 minutes between 7 and 12mm peak emission implies adiabatic expansion of a uniform, spherical hot blob due to flare activity. We suspect that this simple outflow picture shows some of the characteristics that are known to take place in microquasars, thus we may learn much from comparative study of Sgr A* and its environment vs. microquasars.

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The Origin of Diffuse X-ray and $γ$-ray Emission from the Galactic Center Region: Cosmic Ray Particles

(Abridged) The inner couple hundred pcs of our Galaxy is characterized by significant amount of synchrotron-emitting gas, which appears to co-exist with a large reservoir of molecular gas. The spatial correlation between fluorescent Fe K-alpha line emission at 6.4 keV and molecular line emission from Galactic center molecular clouds has been explained as reflected X-rays from a past outburst of Sgr A*. Here we present multi-wavelength study of a representative Galactic center cloud Sgr C using Chandra, VLA and FCRAO. We note a correlation between the nonthermal radio filaments in Sgr C and the X-ray features, suggesting that the two are related. We account for this distribution in terms of the impact of the relativistic particles from local (nonthermal filaments) and extended sources with diffuse neutral gas producing both a nonthermal bremsstrahlung X-ray continuum emission, as well as diffuse 6.4 keV line emission. The production rate of Fe Kalpha photons associated with the injection of electrons into a cloud as a function of column density is calculated. The required energy density of low-energy cosmic rays associated with the synchrotron emitting radio filaments or extended features is estimated to be in the range between 20 and $\sim10^3$ eV cm^-3 for Sgr C, Sgr B1, Sgr B2, and ``the 45 and -30 \kms'' clouds. We also generalize this idea to explain the pervasive production of diffuse Kalpha line and TeV emission from the Galactic center molecular clouds. In particular, we suggest that IC scattering of the sub-millimeter radiation from dust by relativistic electrons may contribute substantially to the large-scale diffuse TeV emission observed towards the central regions of the Galaxy.

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Flaring Activity of Sgr A* at 43 and 22 GHz: Evidence for Expanding Hot Plasma

We have carried out Very Large Array (VLA) continuum observations to study the variability of Sgr A* at 43 GHz ($λ$=7mm) and 22 GHz ($λ$=13mm). A low level of flare activity has been detected with a duration of $\sim$ 2 hours at these frequencies, showing the peak flare emission at 43 GHz leading the 22 GHz peak flare by $\sim20$ to 40 minutes. The overall characteristics of the flare emission are interpreted in terms of the plasmon model of Van der Laan (1966) by considering the ejection and adiabatically expansion of a uniform, spherical plasma blob due to flare activity. The observed peak of the flare emission with a spectral index $ν^{-α}$ of $α$=1.6 is consistent with the prediction that the peak emission shifts toward lower frequencies in an adiabatically-expanding self-absorbed source. We present the expected synchrotron light curves for an expanding blob as well as the peak frequency emission as a function of the energy spectral index constrained by the available flaring measurements in near-IR, sub-millimeter, millimeter and radio wavelengths. We note that the blob model is consistent with the available measurements, however, we can not rule out the jet of Sgr A*. If expanding material leaves the gravitational potential of Sgr A*, the total mass-loss rate of nonthermal and thermal particles is estimated to be $\le 2\times10^{-8}$ M$_\odot$ yr$^{-1}$. We discuss the implication of the mass-loss rate since this value matches closely with the estimated accretion rate based on polarization measurements.

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A Multi-Wavelength Study of Sgr A*: The Role of Near-IR Flares in Production of X-ray, Soft $γ$-ray and Sub-millimeter Emission

(abridged) We describe highlights of the results of two observing campaigns in 2004 to investigate the correlation of flare activity in Sgr A* in different wavelength regimes, using a total of nine ground and space-based telescopes. We report the detection of several new near-IR flares during the campaign based on {\it HST} observations. The level of near-IR flare activity can be as low as $\sim0.15$ mJy at 1.6 $μ$m and continuous up to about 40% of the total observing time. Using the NICMOS instrument on the {\it HST}, the {\it XMM-Newton} and CSO observatories, we also detect simultaneous bright X-ray and near-IR flare in which we observe for the first time correlated substructures as well as simultaneous submillimeter and near-IR flaring. X-ray emission is arising from the population of near-IR-synchrotron-emitting relativistic particles which scatter submillimeter seed photons within the inner 10 Schwarzschild radii of Sgr A* up to X-ray energies. In addition, using the inverse Compton scattering picture, we explain the high energy 20-120 keV emission from the direction toward Sgr A*, and the lack of one-to-one X-ray counterparts to near-IR flares, by the variation of the magnetic field and the spectral index distributions of this population of nonthermal particles. In this picture, the evidence for the variability of submillimeter emission during a near-IR flare is produced by the low-energy component of the population of particles emitting synchrotron near-IR emission. Based on the measurements of the duration of flares in near-IR and submillimeter wavelengths, we argue that the cooling could be due to adiabatic expansion with the implication that flare activity may drive an outflow.

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The Nature of Nonthermal X-ray Filaments Near the Galactic Center

Recent Chandra and XMM-{\it Newton} observations reported evidence of two X-ray filaments G359.88-0.08 (SgrA-E) and G359.54+0.18 (the ripple filament) near the Galactic center. The X-ray emission from these filaments has a nonthermal spectrum and coincides with synchrotron emitting radio sources. Here, we report the detection of a new X-ray feature coincident with a radio filament G359.90-0.06 (SgrA-F) and show more detailed VLA, Chandra and BIMA observations of the radio and X-ray filaments. In particular, we show that radio emission from the nonthermal filaments G359.90-0.06 (SgrA-F) and G359.54+0.18 (the ripple) has a steep spectrum whereas G359.88-0.08 (SgrA-E) has a flat spectrum. The X-ray emission from both these sources could be due to synchrotron radiation. However, given that the 20 \kms molecular cloud, with its intense 1.2mm dust emission, lies in the vicinity of SgrA-F, it is possible that the X-rays could be produced by inverse Compton scattering of far-infrared photons from dust by the relativistic electrons responsible for the radio synchrotron emission. The production of X-ray emission from ICS allows an estimate of the magnetic field strength of ~0.08 mG within the nonthermal filament. This should be an important parameter for any models of the Galactic center nonthermal filaments.

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Proper Motion of the Irradiated Jet HH 399 in the Trifid Nebula

HH 399 is one of the first Herbig Haro flows recognized to be irradiated by the UV radiation of the massive O7.5 star in the Trifid nebula. We present the proper motion of the first irradiated jet based on two epochs of HST observations of HH 399 separated nearly by five years using H$α$ and [SII] line filters. High proper motion with continuous velocities between 200$\pm$55 and 528$\pm24$ \kms are detected in both lines along the 18$''$ extent of the jet axis. The irradiated fully-ionized jet consists of numerous knots along the jet but also shows the evidence for a number of isolated blob-like structures running immediately outside the jet with lower transverse velocities. The transverse velocities combined with radial velocity measurements indicate that the jet axis lies away from the plane of the sky by only few degrees. We argue that the jet is fully ionized based on [SII]/H$α$ line ratio as well as radio continuum emission detected from the full extent of the jet at 3.6cm wavelength. The stellar mass-loss rate producing HH 399 is estimated to be $\approx 2\times10^{-6} \msol $yr$^{-1}$.

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Shocked molecular hydrogen towards the Tornado nebula

We present near-infrared and millimetre-line observations of the Tornado nebula (G357.7-0.1). We detected 2.12 micron_m H2 1-0 S(1) line emission towards the suspected site of interaction with a molecular cloud revealed by the presence of an OH(1720 MHz) maser. The distribution of the H2 emission is well correlated with the nonthermal radio continuum emission from the Tornado, and the velocity of the H2 emission spans over 100 km/s, which both imply that the H2 emission is shock excited. We also detected millimetre-lines from 12CO and 13CO transitions at the velocity of the maser, and mapped the distribution of the molecular cloud in a 2 x 2 arcmin^2 region around the maser. The peak of the molecular cloud aligns well with an indentation in the nebula's radio continuum distribution, suggesting that the nebula's shock is being decelerated at this location, which is consistent with the presence of the OH(1720 MHz) maser and shocked H2 emission at that location.

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The Eye of the Tornado - an isolated, high mass young stellar object near the Galactic centre

We present infrared (AAT, UKIRT) and radio (VLA, SEST) observations of the Eye of the Tornado, a compact source apparently near the head of the Tornado Nebula. The near-infrared Br-gamma and He I lines are broad (FWHM 40 and 30 km/s, respectively) and have a line centre at Vlsr = -205 km/s. This corresponds to a feature at the same velocity in the 12CO J=1-0 line profile. The kinematic velocity derived from Galactic rotation places the Eye at the distance of the Galactic Centre (i.e. 8.5 kpc) and separated (probably foreground) from the Tornado Nebula. Four knots of emission are seen in the Br-gamma line and at 6 and 20 cm. Together with the flat radio spectral index, we confirm that the Eye contains ionized gas, but that this is embedded within a dense molecular core. The spectral energy distribution can be modelled as a two-component blackbody + greybody, peaking at far-IR wavelengths. The knots are UC HII regions, and the core contains a luminous (2 x 10^4 Lsun), embedded, massive young stellar source. We also propose a geometrical model for the Eye to account for both its spectral energy distribution and its morphology.

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Nonthermal Emission from the Arches Cluster (G0.121+0.017) and the Origin of $γ$-ray Emission from 3EG J1746-2851

High resolution VLA observations of the Arches cluster near the Galactic center show evidence of continuum emission at $λ$3.6, 6, 20 and 90cm. The continuum emission at $λ$90cm is particularly striking because thermal sources generally become optically thick at longer wavelengths and fall off in brightness whereas non-thermal sources increase in brightness. It is argued that the radio emission from this unique source has compact and diffuse components produced by thermal and nonthermal processes, respectively. Compact sources within the cluster arise from stellar winds of mass-losing stars (Lang, Goss & Rodriguez 2001a) whereas diffuse emission is likely to be due to colliding wind shocks of the cluster flow generating relativistic particles due to diffuse shock acceleration. We also discuss the possibility that $γ$-ray emission from 3EG J1746--2851, located within 3.3$'$ of the Arches cluster, results from the inverse Compton scattering of the radiation field of the cluster.

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Molecular Line Observations of the Tornado Nebula and its Eye

We present millimetre and NIR molecular-line observations of the Tornado nebula and its Eye. The observations were motivated by the presence of OH(1720 MHz) maser emission towards the nebula, believed to be an indicator of interaction between a supernova remnant and a molecular cloud. We found that the distribution of molecular gas around the Tornado complements its radio morphology, implying that the nebula's appearance has been influenced by the structure of the surrounding molecular gas. Our NIR H$_2$ observations revealed the presence of shocked molecular gas at the location where the nebula is expanding into the surrounding molecular cloud. It has been suggested that the Eye of the Tornado is related to the nebula on the basis of their apparent proximity. Our NIR and millimetre-line observations show that the two objects are not spatially related. Br $γ$ line emission, in conjuction with IR data at longer wavelengths and high-resolution radio continuum observations, suggests that the Eye is a massive protostellar source deeply embedded within a dense molecular core.

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OH (1720 MHz) Masers and Mixed-Morphology Supernova Remnants

Radio surveys of supernova remnants (SNRs) in the Galaxy have uncovered 19 SNRs accompanied by OH maser emission at 1720 MHz. This unusual class of maser sources is suggested to be produced behind a shock front from the expansion of a supernova remnant running into a molecular cloud. An important ingredient of this model is that X-ray emission from the remnant enhances the production of OH molecule. The role of X-ray emission from maser emitting (ME) SNRs is investigated by comparing the X-ray induced ionization rate with theory. One aspect of this model is verified: there is a strong association between maser emitting and mixed-morphology (MM) or thermal composite SNRs --center-filled thermal X-ray emission surrounded by shell-like radio morphology. We also present ROSAT and ASCA observations of two maser emitting SNRs: G21.8--0.6 (Kes 69) and G357.7--0.1 (Tornado).

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Thermal OH (1667/65 MHz) Absorption and Nonthermal OH (1720 MHz) Emission Towards the W28 Supernova Remnant

The W28 supernova remnant is an excellent prototype for observing shocked gas resulting from the interaction of supernova remnants (SNRs) and adjacent molecular clouds (MCs). We present two new signatures of shocked molecular gas in this remnant. One is the detection of main-line extended OH (1667 MHz) absorption with broad linewidths. The column density of OH estimated from the optical depth profiles is consistent with a theoretical model in which OH is formed behind a C-type shock front. The second is the detection of extended, weak OH (1720 MHz) line emission with narrow linewidth distributed throughout the shocked region of W28. These give observational support to the idea that compact maser sources delineate the brightest component of a much larger region of main line OH absorption and nonthermal OH (1720 MHz) emission tracing the global structure of shocked molecular gas. Main line OH (1665/67) absorption and extended OH (1720 MHz) emission line studies can serve as powerful tools to detect SNR-MC interaction even when bright OH (1720 MHz) masers are absent.

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Molecular Diagnostics of Supernova Remnant Shocks

We have undertaken a study of radio and infrared molecular-line emission towards several SNRs in order to investigate molecular signatures of SNR shocks, and to test models for OH maser production in SNRs. Here we present results on G349.7+0.2.

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The Origin of X-ray Emission from a Galactic Center Molecular Cloud: Low Energy Cosmic Ray Electrons

The Galactic center region near l$\approx0.2^0$ hosts a mixture of nonthermal linear filaments and thermal radio continuum features associated with the radio Arc. Chandra observations of this region reveal an X-ray filament and diffuse emission with an extent of roughly 60$''\times2''$ and 5$'\times3'$, respectively. The X-ray filament lies at the edge of the nonthermal radio filaments and a dense molecular shell G0.13-0.13 that has an unusually high kinetic temperature $\ge$70K. These observations demonstrate that the G0.13--0.13 molecular cloud and the nonthermal radio filaments of the Arc are interacting. The diffuse X-ray emission is correlated with the molecular shell and is fitted either by two-temperature (1 and 10 keV) thermal emission or by power-law and 1 keV thermal gas. Fluorescent 6.4 keV line emission is also detected throughout the molecular shell. This cloud coincides within the error circle of a steady unidentified EGRET source 3EGJ1746--2851. We argue that low-energy cosmic ray electrons (LECRe) produce the power-law continuum by bremsstrahlung and 6.4 keV line emission from the filament and the diffuse cloud with the implication on the origin of the Galactic ridge X-ray emission. The strong 6.4 keV Fe-line emission seen from other Galactic center clouds could be produced in a similar fashion rather than via fluorescent emission induced by a transient hard X-ray source in the Galactic center. In addition, heating by ionization induced by LECRe are also responsible for the high temperature of G0.13-0.13. The gamma-ray source is a result of brehmsstrahlung by the high-energy tail of the electron energy distribution.

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