arXiv subjects

Matthew Belyakov

Publications and source records attributed to Matthew Belyakov.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

arXiv2026

Gemini and Apache Point Multi-band Optical Imaging Characterization of Fragmenting Long-period Comet C/2025 K1 (ATLAS)

We present results from multi-band g, r, and i, observations of C/2025 K1 (ATLAS) taken with the Gemini North 8.1-m/GMOS imager on 2025 December 6 and December 24, and u, g, r, i, and z observations with the Astrophysical Research Consortium (ARC) 3.5-m/ARCTIC imager on 2025 December 8. We identify at least four distinct fragments in the Gemini and ARC images, designated as A, C, D, and E in these data taken between 2025 December 6 and 24. Color indices are determined from the December 8 ARC observations of fragments A and C, and from the Gemini observations on December 24 for A, C, and D. K1 has an unusually blue g-r color of $\sim$0.40. The color difference between the comet and its fragments at the two epochs may be explained by particle size and light-scattering effects. We used the Gemini observations to calculate dust mass-loss rates for fragments A, C, and D. We conclude that C/2025 K1 has moderate dust mass-loss rates for millimeter-sized dust of $\sim$50 kg/s for the A and C fragments.

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arXiv2026

Neptune's Inner Moons and Rings Are Exposed Icy Body Interiors

Neptune's single large moon, Triton, is accompanied by a set of dusty rings and small moons whose composition and origin are uncertain. Using the James Webb Space Telescope, we observed Neptune's rings and three moons: Larissa, Galatea, and Proteus. Remarkably, these moons and rings have spectra that are distinct from other outer solar system objects and show no evidence of water ice, despite hosting deep 3 micron OH absorption bands. Additionally, Larissa, Galatea, and the rings show a compositional signature unique among outer solar system bodies: a 2.72 micron absorption band diagnostic of magnesium-rich phyllosilicates - a signpost of extensive aqueous alteration. These minerals likely formed in the interior of primordial satellites destroyed during Triton's violent capture or a tidally shredded dwarf planet. Our findings suggest that Neptune's present-day inner moons and rings reaccreted from this deep interior material and therefore uniquely access the interior composition of icy outer solar system differentiated bodies.

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arXiv2026

Deuterated water and the formation of the satellites of Uranus

The satellites of Uranus orbit in a low-eccentricity, equatorial plane that is tilted by 98 degrees relative to the solar system -- a geometry that mirrors Uranus's extreme axial tilt. Although a giant impact could have tipped Uranus, how the satellites came to share this orientation remains uncertain. Proposed formation pathways include primordial accretion followed by reorientation, formation from debris generated by the tilting impact, and reaccretion from a massive ring produced by the tidal disruption of passing bodies from the outer solar system. Current observations do not discriminate among these scenarios. Using the James Webb Space Telescope, we measured the deuterium-to-hydrogen (D/H) ration in the water ice of the five regular satellites of Uranus. We find an average D/H ratio of $2.1\pm 0.2 \times 10^{-4}$, nearly five times higher than that of Uranus and comparable to the values measured in comets. This enrichment is inconsistent with with any formation scenario in which substantial Uranian material was incorporated into the satellites, thereby excluding models that require significant mixing in an impact-derived vapor disk. The observed D/H ratios are instead compatible with models in which the satellites accreted from material that remained largely separate from Uranus, such as debris from a disrupted pre-existing satellite system or from a tidally captured outer solar system body. The innermost regular satellite, Miranda, exhibits a marginally elevated D/H ratio (2.8 $\sigma$ above the average of the other satellites), potentially indicating a distinct formation history or source of water and offering an important clue for distinguishing amount competing models.

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arXiv2026

The Dust Mineralogy of Interstellar Comet 3I/ATLAS from JWST/MIRI Observations

We present the first spectroscopic mineralogical analysis of the dust coma of an interstellar object (ISO) from JWST mid-infrared spectroscopy of 3I/ATLAS (3I). 3I exhibits a strong 10-micron emissivity feature commonly seen on asteroids, comets, disks, and the interstellar medium. Characterization of this 10-micron emissivity maximum reveals that 3I's dust composition is dominated by amorphous silicates, and that 3I is unlike Solar System comets, which show significant crystalline silicate dust. Instead, 3I's dust composition is more similar to circumstellar transition disks and the interstellar medium. We suggest 3I may have formed in a distant part of its home system out of interstellar medium-like material, without substantial incorporation of silicates condensed near its host star, unlike the mixing scenarios commonly hypothesized for Solar System comets. Alternatively, 3I's original crystalline silicates may have been amorphized during its Gyr-long journey, although we find this alternative less likely due to 3I's mass loss rate and distinct 10 micron feature as opposed to observed Solar System comets.

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arXiv2026

Nereid as a Regular Satellite of Neptune

Nereid, Neptune's third largest moon, is considered to be a captured irregular satellite due to its highly eccentric orbit. However, among irregular satellites, Nereid is an outlier: it is the largest, the closest to its host planet, and the most eccentric. We present James Webb Space Telescope near-infrared spectroscopy of Nereid that demonstrates that its composition is inconsistent with its suggested captured origin. We then simulate Nereid's early orbital history subsequent to Triton's capture to demonstrate a plausible dynamical pathway for a regular satellite formed in-situ around Neptune to evolve to Nereid's present-day orbit. Based upon the available spectroscopic and dynamical evidence, we propose that Nereid is not a body captured from the Kuiper belt, but rather the sole surviving intact regular satellite of Neptune.

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arXiv2026

The Volatile Inventory of 3I/ATLAS as seen with JWST/MIRI

We present the first spectroscopic characterization of an interstellar object at mid-infrared wavelengths. Post-perihelion observations of 3I/ATLAS using the JWST/MIRI medium-resolution spectrometer were obtained on 2025 December 15--16 and 27 when the object was at heliocentric distances of 2.20 and 2.54 au, respectively. Our 5--28 micron spectra exhibit fluorescence features from several gaseous species, including the $\nu_2$ band of water at 5.8--7.0 microns. the primary $\nu_2$ and associated hot bands of carbon dioxide around 15 microns, and a forbidden transition of atomic nickel at 7.507 microns. We also report the first direct detection of methane in an interstellar object. The delayed onset of methane production relative to water suggests past depletion from the outermost layers, with the observed methane emerging from unprocessed subsurface material. Comparison of the volatile production rates measured during the two epochs indicate a significant reduction in overall outgassing over 12 days, with the measured water activity level dropping more steeply than other species. As shown through near-nucleus coma mapping, 3I continues to display an extended source of water production from icy grains entrained within the coma. Our production rate measurements confirm that 3I exhibits a strongly enhanced CO$_2$:H$_2$O mixing ratio relative to typical solar system comets, as well as a somewhat enriched CH$_4$:H$_2$O value.

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arXiv2025

Very Large Telescope Observations of Interstellar Comet 3I/ATLAS. II. From Quiescence to Glow: Dramatic Rise of Ni i Emission and Incipient CN Outgassing at Large Heliocentric Distances*

We report VLT spectroscopy of the interstellar comet 3I/ATLAS (C/2025~N1) from $r_{\rm h}\!\simeq\!4.4$ to $2.85$~au using X-shooter (300--550\,nm, $R\!\simeq\!3000$) and UVES (optical, $R\!\simeq\!35k-80k$). The coma is dust-dominated with a fairly constant red optical continuum slope ($\sim$21--22\%/1000\AA). We report detection of CN emission and also detect numerous Ni\,\textsc{ii}~lines while Fe\,\textsc{i}~remains undetected, potentially implying efficiently released gas-phase Ni. At $r_{\rm h}\!\simeq\!3.14$~au we derive $3\sigma$ limits of $Q({\rm OH})<{1.48\times10^{26}}\ {\rm s^{-1}}$, but find no indications for [O\,\textsc{i}], C$_2$, C$_3$ or NH$_2$. From our latest X-shooter measurements conducted on 2025-08-21 ($r_{\rm h} = 2.85$\,au) we measure production rates of $\log~Q(\mathrm{CN}) = {24.81\pm 0.01}$ molecules s$^{-1}$ and $\log~Q$(Ni) $= {23.30\pm0.07}$ atoms s$^{-1}$, and characterize their evolution as the comet approaches perihelion.~We observe a steep heliocentric-distance scaling for the production rates $Q(\mathrm{Ni}) \propto r_h^{{-7.7 \pm 1.0}}$ and for $Q(\mathrm{CN}) \propto r_h^{{-6.7 \pm 0.2}}$, and predict a Ni--CO$_{(2)}$ correlation if the Ni\,\textsc{ii}\ emission is driven by the carbonyl formation channel.~Energetic considerations of activation barriers show that this behavior is inconsistent with direct sublimation of canonical metal/sulfide phases and instead favors low--activation--energy release from dust, e.g.~photon-stimulated desorption or mild thermolysis of metalated organics or Ni-rich nanophases, possibly including Ni--carbonyl-like complexes.~These hypotheses are testable with future coordinated ground-based and space-based monitoring as 3I becomes more active during its continued passage through the solar system.

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arXiv2025

The Perturbation Theory Approach to Stability in the Scattered Disk

Scattered disk objects (SDOs) are distant minor bodies that orbit the sun on highly eccentric orbits, frequently with perhelia near Neptune's orbit. Gravitational perturbations due to Neptune frequently lead to chaotic dynamics, with the degree of chaotic diffusion set by an object's perihelion distance. Batygin et al. (2021) developed a perturbative approach for scattered disk dynamics, finding that, to leading order in semi-major axis ratio, an infinite series of $2:j$ resonances drives the dynamics of the distant scattered disk, with overlaps between resonances driving chaotic motion. In this work we extend this model by taking the spherical harmonic expansion for Neptune's gravitational potential to octupole order and beyond. In continuing the expansion out to smaller semi-major axis limits, we find that the $1:j$ and $3:j$ resonances that emerge in the octupole expansion do not individually set new limits on the stability boundary. Instead, we find that for increasingly Neptune-proximate orbits, resonances of progressively higher index are dominant in explaining the emergence of chaotic behavior. In this picture, the mutual intersections between series of $2:j$, $3:j$, $4:j \dots,$ resonant chains explain local chaotic evolution of SDOs and shape the dynamical distribution of the population at large.

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arXiv2025

NSF-DOE Vera C. Rubin Observatory Observations of Interstellar Comet 3I/ATLAS (C/2025 N1)

We report on the observation and measurement of astrometry, photometry, morphology, and activityof the interstellar object 3I/ATLAS, also designated C/2025 N1 (ATLAS) with the NSF-DOE Vera C. Rubin Observatory. Comet 3I/ATLAS, the third known interstellar object, was discovered on UT 2025 July 1. Rubin Observatory had coincidentally collected images of the object's region of the sky during routine commissioning. Facilitated by Rubin's high resolution and large aperture, we successfully recovered object detections from Rubin observations spanning UT 2025 June 21 (10 days before discovery, when 3I/ATLAS was 4.5 au from the Sun) through the date of discovery, and we acquired additional images through UT 2025 July 20 as part of commissioning. We measure on-sky locations of 3I/ATLAS in Rubin ugrizy bands, with a typical precision of about 70 mas, and briefly describe the reason this is coarser than our measured static source astrometric precision of about 3 mas in Rubin images. We measure grizy magnitudes of 3I/ATLAS photometry at about 0.01 mag precision, detecting no short-term photometric variability above 0.01 mag. We derive an estimated near-nucleus dust-to-nucleus scattering cross-section ratio of eta >= 13 on UT 2025 July 2 based on Rubin photometry and an upper limit nucleus size computed from Hubble Space Telescope observations. We find Rubin colors of g - r = (0.657 +/- 0.013) mag, r - i = (0.235 +/- 0.018) mag, i - z = (0.147 +/- 0.042) mag, z - y = (0.047 +/- 0.052) mag. These data represent the earliest observations of this object by a large (>=8-meter class) telescope and illustrate the type of measurements (and discoveries) Rubin's Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST) will begin to provide after it begins in early 2026.

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arXiv2025

Palomar and Apache Point Spectrophotometry of Interstellar Comet 3I/ATLAS

On July 1st 2025 the third interstellar object, 3I/ATLAS or C/2025 N1 (ATLAS), was discovered, with an eccentricity of $e=6.15 \pm 0.01$ and perihelion of $q=1.357\pm0.001$ au. We report our initial visible to near-infrared (420-1000 nm) spectrophotometry of 3I/ATLAS using both the Palomar 200 inch telescope and Apache Point Observatory. We measure 3I/ATLAS to have a red spectral slope of 19 %/100 nm in the 420-700 nm range, and a more neutral 6 %/100 nm slope over 700-1000 nm. We detect no notable emission features such as from C$_2$.

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arXiv2025

Multi-epoch spectro-photometric characterization of the minimoon 2024 PT$_5$ in the visible and near-infrared

2024 PT$_5$ is a tiny ($D\leq10$ m) near-Earth asteroid (NEA) discovered in August 2024. 2024 PT$_5$ was gravitationally bound to the Earth-Moon system from September to November 2024 and classified as a minimoon. Several quick response observations suggest the lunar ejecta origin of 2024 PT$_5$, while rotation state and albedo, essential properties to investigate its origin, are not well constrained. We performed visible to near-infrared multicolor photometry of 2024 PT$_5$ from data taken using the TriColor CMOS Camera and Spectrograph (TriCCS) on the Seimei 3.8 m telescope during 2025 January 4-10. The Seimei/TriCCS observations of 2024 PT$_5$ cover phase angles from 14 deg to 27 deg, and were obtained in the $g$, $r$, $i$, and $z$ bands in the Pan-STARRS system. In addition, we analyzed $Y$, $J$, $H$, and $K$ photometry taken with the Multi-Object Spectrograph for Infrared Exploration (MOSFIRE) on the Keck I 10-m telescope taken on 2025 January 16-17. Our lightcurves show brightness variations over time periods of several tens of minutes. We infer that 2024 PT$_5$ is in a tumbling state and has a lightcurve amplitude of about 0.3 mag. Visible and near-infrared color indices of 2024 PT$_5$, $g-r=0.567\pm0.044$, $r-i=0.155\pm0.009$, $r-z=0.147\pm0.066$, $Y-J=0.557\pm0.046$, $J-H=0.672\pm0.078$, and $H-Ks=0.148\pm0.098$, indicate that 2024 PT$_5$ is an S-complex asteroid, largely consistent with previous observations. Using the $H$-$G$ model, we derived an absolute magnitude $H_{V,HG}$ of $27.72\pm0.09$ and a slope parameter $G_V$ of $0.223\pm0.073$ in V-band. A geometric albedo of 2024 PT$_5$ is derived to be $0.26\pm0.07$ from the slope of its photometric phase curve. This albedo value is typical of the S- and Q-type NEAs. The color properties of 2024 PT$_5$ derived from our observations match rock samples taken from the lunar surface, which agrees with previous studies.

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arXiv2025

Interstellar comet 3I/ATLAS: discovery and physical description

We describe the physical characteristics of interstellar comet 3I/ATLAS, discovered on 2025 July 1 by the Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System. The comet has eccentricity, $e$ $\simeq$ 6.08 and velocity at infinity, v$_{\infty}$ $\simeq$ 57 km/s, indicating an interstellar origin. \textbf{We obtained B,V, R, I, g, r, i, and z photometry with the Kottamia Astronomical Observatory 1.88-m telescope, the Palomar 200-inch telescope, and the Astrophysical Research Consortium 3.5-m telescope on 2025 July 2, 3, and 6. We measured colour indices B-V=0.98$\pm$0.23, V-R=0.71$\pm$0.09, R-I=0.14$\pm$0.10, g-r=0.84$\pm$0.05 mag, r-i=0.16$\pm$0.03 mag, i-z=-0.02$\pm$0.07 mag, and g-i=1.00$\pm$0.05 mag and a spectral slope of 16.0$\pm$1.9 $\%$/100 nm.} We calculate the dust cross-section within 10,000 km of the comet to be 184.6$\pm$4.6 km$^2$, assuming an albedo of 0.10. 3I/ATLAS's coma has FWHM$\simeq$2.2 arcsec and A(0$^\circ$)f$\rho$=280.8$\pm$3.2 cm. \textbf{We estimate that 3I/ATLAS's \textmu m-scale to mm-scale dust is ejected at $\sim$0.01-1 m/s, implying a dust production of $\sim$0.1 - 1.0 kg/s.

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arXiv2025

A JWST study of CO$_2$ on the satellites of Saturn

Solid state CO$_2$ has been detected throughout the outer solar system, even at temperatures where crystalline CO$_2$ is unstable, requiring that the CO$_2$ be trapped in a separate host material. The Saturnian satellites provide an ideal laboratory for the study of this trapped CO$_2$, allowing us to examine objects with identical insolation, but with a range of environments, ice exposure, organic abundance, and formation locations. Here, we present JWST spectra of 8 mid-sized satellites of Saturn, including Mimas, Enceladus, Tethys, Dione, and Rhea interior to Titan, and Hyperion, Iapetus, and Phoebe exterior. The $\sim$4.26 $\mu$m CO$_2$ $\nu_3$ band is detected on each satellite, and the $\sim$2.7 $\mu$m $\nu_1+\nu_3$ band is detected on all but Phoebe and the leading hemisphere of Iapetus. Based on the wavelength shifts of these bands, we find four separate types of trapped CO$_2$ on the satellites. On the inner satellites, CO$_2$ appears trapped in amorphous ice sourced from Saturn's E-ring, and a second component of CO$_2$ is associated with the dark material most prominent on the trailing hemispheres of Dione and Rhea. On the outer satellites, CO$_2$ appears to be produced by irradiation of organics on Phoebe, which are then transported to the dark leading hemisphere of Iapetus and onto the dark regions of Hyperion. CO$_2$ is also trapped by water ice on the trailing hemisphere of Iapetus and on Hyperion. These observations point to the continued need for laboratory studies to better understand the sources and trapping mechanisms of CO$_2$ throughout the outer solar system.

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arXiv2025

JWST Near Infrared Spectroscopy of High Albedo Jupiter Trojans: A New Surface Type in the Trojan Belt

We present 0.8 to 5 $\mu$m JWST spectra of four $\sim$20 km diameter Jupiter Trojans known to have albedos elevated above the values typical in the remaining Trojan population. The spectra of these four high albedo Jupiter Trojans are all similar, with red slopes in the optical-IR transition region, a break to lower slopes at 1.3 $\mu$m, and a broad absorptions from 2.8 to 4 $\mu$m. The 0.8 to 2.5 $\mu$m spectra of these objects match the spectra of neither the well-known "red" and "less-red" Jupiter Trojans nor of any known asteroid taxonomic class. The reflecticity of these objects does not rise redward of 4 $\mu$m, a property that is seen in the previous JWST observations of Jupiter Trojans only in Polymele. Indeed, the high albedo Jupiter Trojan spectra are a good match to that of Polymele, and Polymele is both the smallest Jupiter Trojan in the previous JWST sample and has the highest albedo of the objects in that sample. We conclude that Polymele and the other high albedo Jupiter Trojans represent a third class of Jupiter Trojans not represented in the more heavily-studied larger objects and are perhaps the products of recent disruptions. The Lucy flyby of Polymele in September 2027 will give a direct view of one of this new class of Jupiter Trojans.

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arXiv2025

Spectroscopic Mapping of Callisto with HST/STIS and Implications for its Surface Composition

We present global, spatially resolved ultraviolet-visible spectra of Callisto obtained with HST/STIS and explore possible compositions of Callisto's surface material. We map the strength of a widespread downturn toward the near-UV and the NIR spectral slope from 700 to 1000 nm, which varies from slightly blue (reflectance decreasing from 700 to 1000 nm) to red (reflectance increasing) across Callisto's surface. Globally, bright water-ice-rich regions tend to have neutral or blue NIR slopes and a shallower near-UV downturn, while darker material is associated with red NIR slopes and stronger near-UV absorption. Broad absorptions near 820 and 930 nm are spatially correlated with the Asgard and Valhalla impact basins and may be associated with iron-bearing silicates. An absorption edge near 275 nm maps primarily to Callisto's trailing hemisphere, and a 320 nm absorption most prevalent within and surrounding Asgard and Valhalla may be related to organics. We report two new absorption features near 230 and 450 nm which might be attributed to irradiated NaCl. We find little evidence for sulfur-bearing species at UV-visible wavelengths and suggest that a 280 nm band seen only in leading/trailing hemisphere ratio spectra and previously attributed to SO2 is better explained as a consequence of dividing the unrelated 320 nm leading hemisphere band by the trailing hemisphere 275 nm absorption edge. Spatial variations in spectral features suggest that Callisto's dark material composition varies regionally, reflecting a mix of endogenic and exogenic sources and radiolytic alteration.

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arXiv2025

Saturnian Irregular Satellites as a Probe of Kuiper Belt Surface Evolution

We present the JWST NIRSpec PRISM 0.7-5.3 micron spectra of Albiorix and Siarnaq and the NIRSpec G235H/G395M 1.7-5.3 micron spectra of Phoebe, the three largest Saturnian irregular satellites. The irregular satellites of the giant planets are thought to be captured planetesimals from the same population as Kuiper belt objects. They are emplaced inside Saturn's Hill sphere during the giant-planet instability described by the Nice Model, and are thus valuable tracers of Kuiper belt surface evolution. Phoebe's JWST spectrum matches the global average from Cassini VIMS, and by comparing the spectrum to the library of Kuiper belt object spectra from JWST, we demonstrate Phoebe's compositional similarity to water-rich KBOs. On the smaller Albiorix and Siarnaq, we observe a broad 3 micron O-H band but do not see a Fresnel peak or the 1.5/2.0 micron features characteristic of H$_2$O ice. We posit that after capture, the frequent high-velocity collisions between smaller irregular satellites sublimate the water ice, while the much larger Phoebe is resistant to disruption and retains its water ice. We suggest that the presence of CO$_2$ on the smaller satellites, despite the lack of water ice, indicates later formation of CO$_2$ on these surfaces through irradiation of organic compounds.

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arXiv2025

Keck and Gemini characterization of $Hayabusa2\#$ rendezvous target 1998 KY$_{26}$

Near-earth object (NEO) 1998 KY$_{26}$ is a target of the $Hayabusa2\#$ spacecraft, which it will rendezvous with in July 2031. The asteroid is a rapid rotator and has a large out-of-plane nongravitational acceleration. We present deep $g$ and $R$ band imaging obtained with the Keck I/Low Resolution Imaging Spectrometer and visible spectroscopy from Gemini North/Gemini Multi-Object Spectrograph taken of 1998 KY$_{26}$ on 2024 June 8-9 when the asteroid was $\sim$0.037 au from the Earth. The asteroid lacks evidence of a dust coma in the deep images and its spectrum most closely resembles Xe-type asteroids, possessing a spectral slope of 6.71$\pm$0.43 $\%$ 100 nm$^{-1}$, and colors $g$-$r$ = 0.63$\pm$0.03, $r$-$i$ = 0.15$\pm$0.03, $i$-$z$ = 0.05$\pm$0.04, and implies a diameter of $\sim$10 m. From our images, we compute a 3$\sigma$ upper limit on the dust production of 1998 KY$_{26}$ of $<$10$^{-5}$ kg s$^{-1}$, $<$10$^{-2}$ kg s$^{-1}$, and $<$10$^{-1}$ kg s$^{-1}$ assuming $\mathrm{\mu}$m, mm, and cm size dust particles. Additionally, we compare the orbit of 1998 KY$_{26}$ and large nongravitational parameters asteroids to NEO population models and find that the majority, including 1998 KY$_{26}$, likely originated from the inner Main Belt, while the second most numerous group originates from the outer Main Belt, followed by a third group originating from the Jupiter Family Comet population. Given its inner Main Belt origin, its Xe-type spectrum, and rapid rotation, we hypothesize that the nongravitational acceleration of 1998 KY$_{26}$ may be caused by the shedding of large dust grains from its surface due to its rotation rather than H$_2$O vapor outgassing.

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arXiv2024

The Trojan-like Colors of Low-Perihelion Kuiper Belt Objects

An important testable prediction of dynamical instability models for the early evolution of the Solar System is that Jupiter Trojans share a source population with the Kuiper belt. Concrete evidence of this prediction remains elusive, as Kuiper belt objects (KBOs) and Jupiter Trojans appear to have different surface compositions. We address the long-standing question of Trojan origin by finding a dynamical sub-population in the Kuiper belt with Trojan-like colors. Combining existing photometric data with our own surveys on Keck I and Palomar P200, we find that the low-perihelion ($q<30 $AU, $a>30 $AU) component of the Kuiper belt has colors that bifurcate similarly to the Jupiter Trojans, unlike Centaurs ($a<30 $AU) which have redder, Kuiper belt-like colors. To connect the Jupiter Trojans to the Kuiper belt, we test whether the distinct Trojan-like colors of low-perihelion KBOs result from surface processing, or are sourced from a specific population in the Kuiper belt. By simulating the evolution of the Canada-France Ecliptic Plane Survey synthetic population of KBOs for four billion years, we find that differences in heating timescales cannot result in a significant depletion of Very Red low-perihelion KBOs as compared to the Centaurs. We find that the neutrally-colored scattered disk objects ($e>0.6$ KBOs) contribute more to the low-perihelion KBO population rather than Centaurs, resulting in their different colors.

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