arXiv subjects

Matthew Shardlow

Publications and source records attributed to Matthew Shardlow.

27 records · Page 2Linked to original sources

arXiv2023

Lexical Complexity Prediction: An Overview

The occurrence of unknown words in texts significantly hinders reading comprehension. To improve accessibility for specific target populations, computational modelling has been applied to identify complex words in texts and substitute them for simpler alternatives. In this paper, we present an overview of computational approaches to lexical complexity prediction focusing on the work carried out on English data. We survey relevant approaches to this problem which include traditional machine learning classifiers (e.g. SVMs, logistic regression) and deep neural networks as well as a variety of features, such as those inspired by literature in psycholinguistics as well as word frequency, word length, and many others. Furthermore, we introduce readers to past competitions and available datasets created on this topic. Finally, we include brief sections on applications of lexical complexity prediction, such as readability and text simplification, together with related studies on languages other than English.

cs.CL↗

arXiv2023

Findings of the TSAR-2022 Shared Task on Multilingual Lexical Simplification

We report findings of the TSAR-2022 shared task on multilingual lexical simplification, organized as part of the Workshop on Text Simplification, Accessibility, and Readability TSAR-2022 held in conjunction with EMNLP 2022. The task called the Natural Language Processing research community to contribute with methods to advance the state of the art in multilingual lexical simplification for English, Portuguese, and Spanish. A total of 14 teams submitted the results of their lexical simplification systems for the provided test data. Results of the shared task indicate new benchmarks in Lexical Simplification with English lexical simplification quantitative results noticeably higher than those obtained for Spanish and (Brazilian) Portuguese.

cs.CL↗

arXiv2022

Predicting Lexical Complexity in English Texts: The Complex 2.0 Dataset

Identifying words which may cause difficulty for a reader is an essential step in most lexical text simplification systems prior to lexical substitution and can also be used for assessing the readability of a text. This task is commonly referred to as Complex Word Identification (CWI) and is often modelled as a supervised classification problem. For training such systems, annotated datasets in which words and sometimes multi-word expressions are labelled regarding complexity are required. In this paper we analyze previous work carried out in this task and investigate the properties of CWI datasets for English. We develop a protocol for the annotation of lexical complexity and use this to annotate a new dataset, CompLex 2.0. We present experiments using both new and old datasets to investigate the nature of lexical complexity. We found that a Likert-scale annotation protocol provides an objective setting that is superior for identifying the complexity of words compared to a binary annotation protocol. We release a new dataset using our new protocol to promote the task of Lexical Complexity Prediction.

cs.CL↗

arXiv2022

Lexical Simplification Benchmarks for English, Portuguese, and Spanish

Even in highly-developed countries, as many as 15-30\% of the population can only understand texts written using a basic vocabulary. Their understanding of everyday texts is limited, which prevents them from taking an active role in society and making informed decisions regarding healthcare, legal representation, or democratic choice. Lexical simplification is a natural language processing task that aims to make text understandable to everyone by replacing complex vocabulary and expressions with simpler ones, while preserving the original meaning. It has attracted considerable attention in the last 20 years, and fully automatic lexical simplification systems have been proposed for various languages. The main obstacle for the progress of the field is the absence of high-quality datasets for building and evaluating lexical simplification systems. We present a new benchmark dataset for lexical simplification in English, Spanish, and (Brazilian) Portuguese, and provide details about data selection and annotation procedures. This is the first dataset that offers a direct comparison of lexical simplification systems for three languages. To showcase the usability of the dataset, we adapt two state-of-the-art lexical simplification systems with differing architectures (neural vs.\ non-neural) to all three languages (English, Spanish, and Brazilian Portuguese) and evaluate their performances on our new dataset. For a fairer comparison, we use several evaluation measures which capture varied aspects of the systems' efficacy, and discuss their strengths and weaknesses. We find a state-of-the-art neural lexical simplification system outperforms a state-of-the-art non-neural lexical simplification system in all three languages. More importantly, we find that the state-of-the-art neural lexical simplification systems perform significantly better for English than for Spanish and Portuguese.

cs.CL↗

arXiv2021

Investigating Text Simplification Evaluation

Modern text simplification (TS) heavily relies on the availability of gold standard data to build machine learning models. However, existing studies show that parallel TS corpora contain inaccurate simplifications and incorrect alignments. Additionally, evaluation is usually performed by using metrics such as BLEU or SARI to compare system output to the gold standard. A major limitation is that these metrics do not match human judgements and the performance on different datasets and linguistic phenomena vary greatly. Furthermore, our research shows that the test and training subsets of parallel datasets differ significantly. In this work, we investigate existing TS corpora, providing new insights that will motivate the improvement of existing state-of-the-art TS evaluation methods. Our contributions include the analysis of TS corpora based on existing modifications used for simplification and an empirical study on TS models performance by using better-distributed datasets. We demonstrate that by improving the distribution of TS datasets, we can build more robust TS models.

cs.CL↗

arXiv2021

Towards a corpus for credibility assessment in software practitioner blog articles

Blogs are a source of grey literature which are widely adopted by software practitioners for disseminating opinion and experience. Analysing such articles can provide useful insights into the state-of-practice for software engineering research. However, there are challenges in identifying higher quality content from the large quantity of articles available. Credibility assessment can help in identifying quality content, though there is a lack of existing corpora. Credibility is typically measured through a series of conceptual criteria, with 'argumentation' and 'evidence' being two important criteria. We create a corpus labelled for argumentation and evidence that can aid the credibility community. The corpus consists of articles from the blog of a single software practitioner and is publicly available. Three annotators label the corpus with a series of conceptual credibility criteria, reaching an agreement of 0.82 (Fleiss' Kappa). We present preliminary analysis of the corpus by using it to investigate the identification of claim sentences (one of our ten labels). We train four systems (Bert, KNN, Decision Tree and SVM) using three feature sets (Bag of Words, Topic Modelling and InferSent), achieving an F1 score of 0.64 using InferSent and a Linear SVM. Our preliminary results are promising, indicating that the corpus can help future studies in detecting the credibility of grey literature. Future research will investigate the degree to which the sentence level annotations can infer the credibility of the overall document.

cs.SE↗

arXiv2021

SemEval-2021 Task 1: Lexical Complexity Prediction

This paper presents the results and main findings of SemEval-2021 Task 1 - Lexical Complexity Prediction. We provided participants with an augmented version of the CompLex Corpus (Shardlow et al 2020). CompLex is an English multi-domain corpus in which words and multi-word expressions (MWEs) were annotated with respect to their complexity using a five point Likert scale. SemEval-2021 Task 1 featured two Sub-tasks: Sub-task 1 focused on single words and Sub-task 2 focused on MWEs. The competition attracted 198 teams in total, of which 54 teams submitted official runs on the test data to Sub-task 1 and 37 to Sub-task 2.

cs.CL↗

arXiv2020

CompLex: A New Corpus for Lexical Complexity Prediction from Likert Scale Data

Predicting which words are considered hard to understand for a given target population is a vital step in many NLP applications such as text simplification. This task is commonly referred to as Complex Word Identification (CWI). With a few exceptions, previous studies have approached the task as a binary classification task in which systems predict a complexity value (complex vs. non-complex) for a set of target words in a text. This choice is motivated by the fact that all CWI datasets compiled so far have been annotated using a binary annotation scheme. Our paper addresses this limitation by presenting the first English dataset for continuous lexical complexity prediction. We use a 5-point Likert scale scheme to annotate complex words in texts from three sources/domains: the Bible, Europarl, and biomedical texts. This resulted in a corpus of 9,476 sentences each annotated by around 7 annotators.

cs.CL↗

arXiv2020

Detecting Multiword Expression Type Helps Lexical Complexity Assessment

Multiword expressions (MWEs) represent lexemes that should be treated as single lexical units due to their idiosyncratic nature. Multiple NLP applications have been shown to benefit from MWE identification, however the research on lexical complexity of MWEs is still an under-explored area. In this work, we re-annotate the Complex Word Identification Shared Task 2018 dataset of Yimam et al. (2017), which provides complexity scores for a range of lexemes, with the types of MWEs. We release the MWE-annotated dataset with this paper, and we believe this dataset represents a valuable resource for the text simplification community. In addition, we investigate which types of expressions are most problematic for native and non-native readers. Finally, we show that a lexical complexity assessment system benefits from the information about MWE types.

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