arXiv subjects

Max M. Louwerse

Publications and source records attributed to Max M. Louwerse.

3 recordsLinked to original sources

arXiv2026

Prototyping and Evaluating a Real-time Neuro-Adaptive Virtual Reality Flight Training System

Real-time adjustments to task difficulty during flight training are crucial for optimizing performance and managing pilot workload. This study evaluated the functionality of a pre-trained brain-computer interface (BCI) that adapts training difficulty based on real-time estimations of workload from brain signals. Specifically, an EEG-based neuro-adaptive training system was developed and tested in Virtual Reality (VR) flight simulations with military student pilots. The neuro-adaptive system was compared to a fixed sequence that progressively increased in difficulty, in terms of self-reported user engagement, workload, and simulator sickness (subjective measures), as well as flight performance (objective metric). Additionally, we explored the relationships between subjective workload and flight performance in the VR simulator for each condition. The experiments concluded with semi-structured interviews to elicit the pilots' experience with the neuro-adaptive prototype. Results revealed no significant differences between the adaptive and fixed sequence conditions in subjective measures or flight performance. In both conditions, flight performance decreased as subjective workload increased. The semi-structured interviews indicated that, upon briefing, the pilots preferred the neuro-adaptive VR training system over the system with a fixed sequence, although individual differences were observed in the perception of difficulty and the order of changes in difficulty. Even though this study shows performance does not change, BCI-based flight training systems hold the potential to provide a more personalized and varied training experience.

cs.HC↗

arXiv2025

Predicting Workload in Virtual Flight Simulations using EEG Features (Including Post-hoc Analysis in Appendix)

Effective cognitive workload management has a major impact on the safety and performance of pilots. Integrating brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) presents an opportunity for real-time workload assessment. Leveraging cognitive workload data from high-fidelity virtual reality (VR) flight simulations allows for dynamic adjustments to training scenarios. While prior studies have predominantly concentrated on EEG spectral power for workload prediction, delving into intra-brain connectivity may yield deeper insights. This study assessed the predictive value of EEG spectral and connectivity features in distinguishing high vs. low workload periods during simulated flight in VR and Desktop conditions. Using an ensemble approach, a stacked classifier was trained to predict workload from the EEG signals of 52 participants. Results showed that the mean accuracy of the model incorporating both spectral and connectivity features improved by 28% compared to the model that solely relied on spectral features. Further research on other connectivity metrics and deep learning models in a large sample of pilots is essential to validate the potential of a real-time workload-prediction BCI. This could contribute to the development of an adaptive training system for safety-critical operational environments.

cs.HC↗

arXiv2023

Differentiating Workload using Pilot's Stick Input in a Virtual Reality Flight Task

High-risk operational tasks such as those in aviation require training environments that are realistic and capable of inducing high levels of workload. Virtual Reality (VR) offers a simulated 3D environment for immersive, safe and valid training of pilots. An added advantage of such training environments is that they can be personalized to enhance learning, e.g., by adapting the simulation to the user's workload in real-time. The question remains how to reliably and robustly measure a pilot's workload during the training. In this study, six novice military pilots (average of 34.33 flight hours) conducted a speed change maneuver in a VR flight simulator. In half of the runs an auditory 2-back task was added as a secondary task. This led to trials of low and high workload which we compared using the pilot's control input in longitudinal (i.e., pitch) and lateral (i.e., roll) directions. We extracted Pilot Inceptor Workload (PIW) from the stick data and conducted a binary logistic regression to determine whether PIW is predictive of task-induced workload. The results show that inputs on the stick along its longitudinal direction were predictive of workload (low vs. high) when performing a speed change maneuver. Given that PIW may be a task-specific measure, future work may consider (neuro)physiological predictors. Nonetheless, the current paper provides evidence that measuring PIW in a VR flight simulator yields real-time and non-invasive means to determine workload.

cs.HC↗