arXiv subjects

Md. Ibrahim

Publications and source records attributed to Md. Ibrahim.

16 recordsLinked to original sources

arXiv2025

How Market Volatility Shapes Algorithmic Collusion: A Comparative Analysis of Learning-Based Pricing Algorithms

Autonomous pricing algorithms are increasingly influencing competition in digital markets; however, their behavior under realistic demand conditions remains largely unexamined. This paper offers a thorough analysis of four pricing algorithms -- Q-Learning, PSO, Double DQN, and DDPG -- across three classic duopoly models (Logit, Hotelling, Linear) and under various demand-shock regimes created by auto-regressive processes. By utilizing profit- and price-based collusion indices, we investigate how the interactions among algorithms, market structure, and stochastic demand collaboratively influence competitive outcomes. Our findings reveal that reinforcement-learning algorithms often sustain supra-competitive prices under stable demand, with DDPG demonstrating the most pronounced collusive tendencies. Demand shocks produce notably varied effects: Logit markets suffer significant performance declines, Hotelling markets remain stable, and Linear markets experience shock-induced profit inflation. Despite marked changes in absolute performance, the relative rankings of the algorithms are consistent across different environments. These results underscore the critical importance of market structure and demand uncertainty in shaping algorithmic competition, while also contributing to the evolving policy discussions surrounding autonomous pricing behavior.

cs.LG↗

arXiv2025

Design and Performance Analysis of Hybrid FSO/THz Relay with Aerial RIS for Future NTN-Integrated 6G Wireless Communications

In the context of emerging sixth-generation (6G) wireless networks, reconfigurable intelligent surfaces (RISs) are gaining prominence for their ability to intelligently control electromagnetic wave propagation and enhance backhaul communication performance. In this paper, we propose a novel dual-hop wireless network, where the first hop consists of a hybrid free-space optics (FSO) / terahertz (THz) link, and the second hop incorporates an aerial RIS-based radio frequency (RF) link. To provide a comprehensive performance evaluation, a comparative analysis of two switching strategies is conducted: (1) hard switching and (2) soft switching. Novel closed-form expressions are derived for key performance metrics, including outage probability and bit error rate. These expressions are then utilized to investigate the impact of various system parameters. Our proposed hybrid model demonstrates a 52.54% performance improvement over the traditional RF-FSO framework. Moreover, the integration of an aerial RIS in the second hop enhances system performance by 41.39%. Numerical findings suggest that strategically placing the aerial RIS at a lower altitude and maintaining an equal, shorter distance from both communication endpoints significantly improves overall system performance. To analyze the response under high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) conditions, asymptotic analysis is performed, and the diversity order of the system is determined. Finally, the analytical results are validated through a Monte Carlo simulation.

cs.IT↗

arXiv2025

Adaptive Sample-Level Framework Motivated by Distributionally Robust Optimization with Variance-Based Radius Assignment for Enhanced Neural Network Generalization Under Distribution Shift

Distribution shifts and minority subpopulations frequently undermine the reliability of deep neural networks trained using Empirical Risk Minimization (ERM). Distributionally Robust Optimization (DRO) addresses this by optimizing for the worst-case risk within a neighborhood of the training distribution. However, conventional methods depend on a single, global robustness budget, which can lead to overly conservative models or a misallocation of robustness. We propose a variance-driven, adaptive, sample-level DRO (Var-DRO) framework that automatically identifies high-risk training samples and assigns a personalized robustness budget to each based on its online loss variance. Our formulation employs two-sided, KL-divergence-style bounds to constrain the ratio between adversarial and empirical weights for every sample. This results in a linear inner maximization problem over a convex polytope, which admits an efficient water-filling solution. To stabilize training, we introduce a warmup phase and a linear ramp schedule for the global cap on per-sample budgets, complemented by label smoothing for numerical robustness. Evaluated on CIFAR-10-C (corruptions), our method achieves the highest overall mean accuracy compared to ERM and KL-DRO. On Waterbirds, Var-DRO improves overall performance while matching or surpassing KL-DRO. On the original CIFAR-10 dataset, Var-DRO remains competitive, exhibiting the modest trade-off anticipated when prioritizing robustness. The proposed framework is unsupervised (requiring no group labels), straightforward to implement, theoretically sound, and computationally efficient.

cs.LG↗

arXiv2025

Enhancing Physical Layer Security in IoT-Based RF-FSO Integrated Networks: Multi-RIS Structures and their Impact on Secure Communication

Due to their ability to dynamically control the propagation environment, reconfigurable intelligent surfaces (RISs) offer a promising solution to address the challenges of $6$G wireless communication, especially in the context of Internet of Things (IoT) networks. This paper investigates a mixed communication model with multi-RIS-aided radio frequency (RF)-free space optics (FSO) to enhance the performance of IoT applications in complex environments. An eavesdropper is assumed to be present, attempting to intercept confidential information transmitted over the RF link. All RF links are modeled using Rician fading, while the FSO link accounts for M\'alaga turbulence with pointing errors, capturing real-world propagation conditions. Closed-form analytical expressions are derived for the secrecy outage probability, average secrecy capacity, and effective secrecy throughput in terms of Meijer's G function. To gain further insight, high signal-to-noise approximations of these metrics are also presented. Numerical results highlight the importance of heterodyne detection in mitigating the adverse effects of pointing errors on the FSO link. Moreover, integrating a multi-RIS structure into the proposed model significantly increases secrecy performance, achieving up to a $47.67\%$ improvement in SOP compared to conventional methods. Finally, the derived analytical results are validated through Monte Carlo simulations.

cs.IT↗

arXiv2024

RIS-Aided Free-Space Optics Communications in A2G Networks over Inverted Gamma-Gamma Turbulent Channels

With the advent of sixth-generation networks, reconfigurable intelligent surfaces (RISs) have revolutionized wireless communications through dynamic electromagnetic wave manipulation, thereby facilitating the adaptability and unparalleled control of real-time performance evaluations. This study proposed a framework to analyze the performance of RIS-assisted free-space optics (FSO) communication over doubly inverted Gamma-Gamma (IGGG) distributions with pointing error impairments. Furthermore, a special scenario addressing secure communication in the potential presence of an eavesdropper. Consequently, we derived closed-form expressions for the outage probability, average bit error rate, average channel capacity, average secrecy capacity, and secrecy outage probability by employing an asymptotic analysis to provide deeper insights into the influence of various system parameters. Finally, we verified our analytical results through appropriate numerical simulations.

cs.IT↗

arXiv2024

Dual Threats in RIS-Aided RF-UOWC Mixed Networks: Secrecy Performance Analysis under Simultaneous RF and UOWC Eavesdropping

In the dynamic realm of 6G technology, emphasizing security is essential, particularly for optimizing high-performance communication. A notable strategy involves the use of reconfigurable intelligent surfaces (RISs), an emerging and cost-efficient technology aimed at fortifying incoming signals, broadening coverage, and ultimately improving the overall performance of systems. In this paper, we introduce a comprehensive framework to analyze the secrecy performance of an RIS-assisted mixed radio frequency (RF) - underwater optical wireless communication (UOWC) network. Here, all the RF links undergo alpha-mu fading distribution, whereas the UOWC links experience a mixture of Exponential Generalized Gamma distribution. Specifically, we examine three potential eavesdropping situations: 1) eavesdropping on the RF link, 2) eavesdropping on the UOWC link, and 3) a simultaneous eavesdropping attack affecting both RF and UOWC links. To achieve this, we derive novel mathematical expressions such as average secrecy capacity, secrecy outage probability, strictly positive secrecy capacity, and effective secrecy throughput in closed form. Using these derived expressions, we carry out an investigation to assess the influences of fading parameters, pointing errors, receiver detection technique, underwater turbulence severity, and water salinity on the system. Furthermore, our study investigates the significance of RIS in improving secrecy performance due to the proposed model. To provide deeper insights, we also perform asymptotic analysis for the high signal-to-noise region. Finally, to verify our analytical results, we conduct Monte Carlo simulation using a computer-based technique.

cs.IT↗

arXiv2024

Secrecy Performance Analysis of Integrated RF-UWOC IoT Networks Enabled by UAV and Underwater-RIS

In the sixth-generation (6G) Internet of Things (IoT) networks, the use of UAV-mounted base stations and reconfigurable intelligent surfaces (RIS) has been considered to enhance coverage, flexibility, and security in non-terrestrial networks (NTNs). In addition to aerial networks enabled by NTN technologies, the integration of underwater networks with 6G IoT can be considered one of the most innovative challenges in future IoT. Along with such trends in IoT, this study investigates the secrecy performance of IoT networks that integrate radio frequency (RF) UAV-based NTNs and underwater optical wireless communication (UOWC) links with an RIS. Considering three potential eavesdropping scenarios (RF signal, UOWC signal, and both), we derive closed-form expressions for secrecy performance metrics, including average secrecy capacity, secrecy outage probability, probability of strictly positive secrecy capacity, and effective secrecy throughput. Extensive numerical analyses and Monte Carlo simulations elucidate the impact of system parameters such as fading severity, the number of RIS reflecting elements, underwater turbulence, pointing errors, and detection techniques on system security. The findings offer comprehensive design guidelines for developing such a network aiming to enhance secrecy performance and ensure secure communication in diverse and challenging environments.

cs.IT↗

arXiv2023

RIS-aided Mixed RF-FSO Wireless Networks: Secrecy Performance Analysis with Simultaneous Eavesdropping

The appearance of sixth-generation networks has resulted in the proposal of several solutions to tackle signal loss. One of these solutions is the utilization of reconfigurable intelligent surfaces (RIS), which can reflect or refract signals as required. This integration offers significant potential to improve the coverage area from the sender to the receiver. In this paper, we present a comprehensive framework for analyzing the secrecy performance of a RIS-aided mixed radio frequency (RF)-free space optics (FSO) system, for the first time. Our study assumes that a secure message is transmitted from a RF transmitter to a FSO receiver through an intermediate relay. The RF link experiences Rician fading while the FSO link experiences M\'alaga distributed turbulence with pointing errors. We examine three scenarios: 1) RF-link eavesdropping, 2) FSO-link eavesdropping, and 3) a simultaneous eavesdropping attack on both RF and FSO links. We evaluate the secrecy performance using analytical expressions to compute secrecy metrics such as the average secrecy capacity, secrecy outage probability, strictly positive secrecy capacity, effective secrecy throughput, and intercept probability. Our results are confirmed via Monte-Carlo simulations and demonstrate that fading parameters, atmospheric turbulence conditions, pointing errors, and detection techniques play a crucial role in enhancing secrecy performance.

cs.IT↗

arXiv2023

Effects of Co-channel Interference on RIS Empowered Wireless Networks amid Multiple Eavesdropping Attempts

This letter is concerned with the secrecy performance of reconfigurable intelligent surfaces (RIS)-aided wireless networks in the existence of multiple interferers towards the destination. To be more precise, we analyze three critical issues in the design of secure RIS-assisted networks: 1) How do interferers affect the performance of secure wireless networks? 2) Which of the two groups of eavesdroppers (i.e., colluding and non-colluding) is more severe? 3) How can RIS improve network confidentiality? To do so, we develop the analytical expression of secrecy outage probability in closed-form, along with asymptotic analysis at high signal-to-noise ratio regime to better understand the impacts of different system parameters on secrecy performance. Finally, we validate our analytical results using a computer based Monte-Carlo simulation.

cs.IT↗

arXiv2022

Insights from a computational analysis of the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant: Host-pathogen interaction, pathogenicity and possible therapeutics

Prominently accountable for the upsurge of COVID-19 cases as the world attempts to recover from the previous two waves, Omicron has further threatened the conventional therapeutic approaches. Omicron is the fifth variant of concern (VOC), which comprises more than 10 mutations in the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the spike protein. However, the lack of extensive research regarding Omicron has raised the need to establish correlations to understand this variant by structural comparisons. Here, we evaluate, correlate, and compare its genomic sequences through an immunoinformatic approach with wild and mutant RBD forms of the spike protein to understand its epidemiological characteristics and responses towards existing drugs for better patient management. Our computational analyses provided insights into infectious and pathogenic trails of the Omicron variant. In addition, while the analysis represented South Africa's Omicron variant being similar to the highly-infectious B.1.620 variant, mutations within the prominent proteins are hypothesized to alter its pathogenicity. Moreover, docking evaluations revealed significant differences in binding affinity with human receptors, ACE2 and NRP1. Owing to its characteristics of rendering existing treatments ineffective, we evaluated the drug efficacy against their target protein encoded in the Omicron through molecular docking approach. Most of the tested drugs were proven to be effective. Nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid), MPro 13b, and Lopinavir displayed increased effectiveness and efficacy, while Ivermectin showed the best result against Omicron.

q-bio.OT↗

arXiv2021

On Effective Secrecy Throughput of Underlay Spectrum Sharing $\alpha$-$\mu$/ M\'alaga Hybrid Model under Interference-and-Transmit Power Constraints

The underlay cognitive radio-based hybrid radio frequency / free-space optical (RF / FSO) systems have been emerged as a promising technology due to its ability to eliminate spectrum scarcity and spectrum under-utilization problems. Consequently, this work analyzes the physical layer security aspects of a cognitive RF / FSO hybrid network that includes a primary user, a secondary source, a secondary receiver, and an eavesdropper where the secret communication takes place between two legitimate secondary peers over the RF and FSO links simultaneously, and the eavesdropper can overhear the RF link only. In particular, the maximum transmit power limitation at the secondary user as well as the permissible interference power restriction at the primary user are also taken into consideration. All the RF links are modeled with $\alpha$-$\mu$ fading whereas the FSO link undergoes M\'alaga (M) turbulence with link blockage and pointing error impairments. At the receiver, the selection combining diversity technique is utilized to select the signal with the best electrical signal-to-ratio (SNR). Moreover, the closed-form expressions for the secrecy outage probability, probability of strictly positive secrecy capacity, and effective secrecy throughput are derived to analyze the secrecy performance. Besides, the impacts of fading, primary-secondary interference, detection techniques, link blockage probability, atmospheric turbulence, and pointing error are examined. Finally, Monte-Carlo simulations are performed to corroborate the derived expressions.

cs.IT↗

arXiv2021

Enhancing Security of TAS/MRC Based Mixed RF-UOWC System with Induced Underwater Turbulence Effect

Post commercial deployment of fifth-generation (5G) technologies, the consideration of sixth-generation (6G) networks is drawing remarkable attention from research communities. Researchers suggest that similar to 5G, 6G technology must be human-centric where high secrecy together with high data rate will be the key features. These challenges can be easily overcome utilizing PHY security techniques over high-frequency free-space or underwater optical wireless communication (UOWC) technologies. But in long-distance communication, turbulence components drastically affect the optical signals, leading to the invention of the combination of radio-frequency (RF) links with optical links. This work deals with the secrecy performance analysis of a mixed RF-UOWC system where an eavesdropper tries to intercept RF communications. RF and optical links undergo $\eta-\mu$ and mixture exponential generalized Gamma distributions, respectively. To keep pace with the high data rate of optical technologies, we exploit the antenna selection scheme at the source and maximal ratio combining diversity at the relay and eavesdropper, while the eavesdropper is unaware of the antenna selection scheme. We derive closed-form expressions of average secrecy capacity, secrecy outage probability, and strictly positive secrecy capacity to demonstrate the impacts of the system parameters on the secrecy behavior. Finally, the expressions are corroborated via Monte-Carlo simulations.

cs.IT↗

arXiv2012

VANET Routing Protocols: Pros and Cons

VANET (Vehicular Ad-hoc Network) is a new technology which has taken enormous attention in the recent years. Due to rapid topology changing and frequent disconnection makes it difficult to design an efficient routing protocol for routing data among vehicles, called V2V or vehicle to vehicle communication and vehicle to road side infrastructure, called V2I. The existing routing protocols for VANET are not efficient to meet every traffic scenarios. Thus design of an efficient routing protocol has taken significant attention. So, it is very necessary to identify the pros and cons of routing protocols which can be used for further improvement or development of any new routing protocol. This paper presents the pros and cons of VANET routing protocols for inter vehicle communication.

cs.NI↗

arXiv2012

Experimental Analysis of AODV & DSR over TCP & CBR Connections with Varying Speed and Node Density in VANET

Vehicular adhoc network or VANET is special types of adhoc network consists of moving cars referred to as nodes; provide a way to exchange any information between cars without depending on fixed infrastructure. For efficient communication between nodes various routing protocols and mobility models have been proposed based on different scenarios. Due to rapid topology changing and frequent disconnection makes it difficult to select suitable mobility model and routing protocols. Hence performance evaluation and comparison between routing protocols is required to understand any routing protocol as well as to develop a new routing protocol. In this research paper, the performance of two on-demand routing protocols AODV & DSR has been analyzed by means of packet delivery ratio, loss packet ratio & average end-to-end delay with varying speed limit and node density under TCP & CBR connection.

cs.NI↗

arXiv2012

Performance Evaluation of Aodv&DSR with Varying Pause Time & Node Density Over TCP&CBR Connections in Vanet

Vehicular ad hoc network is formed by cars which are called nodes; allow them to communicate with one another without using any fixed road side unit. It has some unique characteristics which make it different from other ad hoc network as well as difficult to define any exact mobility model and routing protocols because of their high mobility and changing mobility pattern. Hence performance of routing protocols can vary with the various parameters such as speed, pause time, node density and traffic scenarios. In this research paper, the performance of two on-demand routing protocols AODV & DSR has been analyzed by means of packet delivery ratio, loss packet ratio & average end-to-end delay with varying pause time and node density under TCP & CBR connection.

cs.NI↗

arXiv2012

Performance Evaluation of AODV & DSR with Varying Pause Time & Speed Time Over TCP & CBR Connections in VANET

VANET (Vehicular Ad-hoc Network) is a new technology which has taken enormous attention in the recent years. Vehicular ad hoc network is formed by cars which are called nodes; allow them to communicate with one another without using any fixed road side unit. It has some unique characteristics which make it different from other ad hoc network as well as difficult to define any exact mobility model and routing protocols because of their high mobility and changing mobility pattern. Hence performance of routing protocols can vary with the various parameters such as speed, pause time, node density and traffic scenarios. In this research paper, the performance of two on-demand routing protocols AODV & DSR has been analyzed by means of packet delivery ratio, loss packet ratio & average end-to-end delay with varying pause time, speed time and node density under TCP & CBR connection.

cs.NI↗