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Mohamed Amine Ferrag

Publications and source records attributed to Mohamed Amine Ferrag.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources
arXiv2026

PhysAI-Bench: A Benchmark for LLM-Based Agentic Decision-Making in Autonomous UAV-Centric Physical AI

Recent advances in Physical AI have accelerated the use of foundation models in autonomous systems such as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), which must perceive, reason, plan, and act in dynamic environments. Existing benchmarks assess physical perception, intuitive physics, embodied navigation, and collaborative reasoning, but rarely evaluate the agentic decision-making required for reliable autonomy. We introduce \textit{PhysAI-Bench}, a benchmark for evaluating this capability. It contains 10,178 standardized decision instances automatically extracted from conversational traces of autonomous UAV missions. Each instance preserves mission context, temporal dependencies, physical constraints, Model Context Protocol (MCP) tool calls, Agent-to-Agent (A2A) interactions, sensor observations, and AI-native 6G network conditions, including latency, packet loss, throughput, edge load, and network slicing. We expose only information preceding each decision, preventing future-event leakage and approximating online decision-making. We evaluate 29 foundation models using a two-stage protocol. We select model-specific configurations from 12 combinations of zero-, three-, and five-shot prompting and four temperatures, tested in three runs on a 35-instance, human-verified development set. We then freeze each selected configuration and evaluate it in three runs on a fixed, episode-disjoint set of 500 instances. GPT-5.3 achieves the highest accuracy (52.00%), followed by GPT-5.2 (49.40%) and Grok~4.5 (49.07%). Few-shot prompting generally improves performance, while temperature has limited influence. The results demonstrate that reliable agentic decision-making in Physical AI remains an open challenge. The dataset is available at https://github.com/maferrag/physai-bench

cs.AI↗
arXiv2026

How Small Can 6G Reason? Scaling Tiny-to-Small Language Models for AI-Native Networks

Emerging 6G visions, reflected in ongoing standardization efforts within 3GPP, IETF, ETSI, ITU-T, and the O-RAN Alliance, increasingly characterize networks as AI-native systems in which high-level semantic reasoning layers operate above standardized control and data-plane functions. Although frontier-scale large language models (LLMs) such as Qwen2.5-7B and Olmo-3-7B demonstrate strong reasoning capability, their computational footprint limits deployment in latency-sensitive, edge-native infrastructures. This paper presents a systematic empirical study of the scaling behavior and deployment efficiency of compact language models for network-level semantic reasoning in AI-native 6G systems. Using 6G-Bench, a standardization-aligned benchmark comprising 30 decision-making tasks across five capability domains, we evaluate models ranging from 135M (SmolLM2-135M) to 7B parameters (Qwen2.5-7B), including mid-scale architectures such as Llama-3.2-1B, Granite-1B, and Qwen2.5-3B. Deterministic accuracy (pass@1) increases from 0.224 at 135M to 0.707 at 7B, but scaling gains are highly non-uniform. A pronounced stability transition occurs in the 1 to 1.5B range, where accuracy rises from 0.373 (Llama-3.2-1B) to 0.531 (Qwen2.5-1.5B) and the instability gap Delta_5 contracts from 0.356 to 0.138. Beyond 3B parameters, improvements diminish (+0.064 from 3B to 7B). Through single-query inference profiling and an Edge Score metric that normalizes accuracy by latency and memory footprint, we show that semantic reliability per unit edge resource does not scale monotonically with parameter count. Instead, mid-scale models (approximately 1.5 to 3B) achieve the most favorable balance between deterministic stability and computational efficiency, providing deployment-relevant guidance for AI-native 6G architectures. All scripts and results are publicly available at https://github.com/maferrag/6G-Bench

cs.NI↗
arXiv2026

LIDSA: Cognitive Arbitration for Signal-Free Autonomous Intersection Management

Large language models (LLMs) show strong potential for Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS), particularly in tasks requiring situational reasoning and multi-agent coordination. These capabilities make them well suited for cooperative driving, where rule-based approaches struggle in complex and dynamic traffic environments. Intersection management remains especially challenging due to conflicting right-of-way demands, heterogeneous vehicle priorities, and vehicle-specific kinematic constraints that must be resolved in real time. However, existing approaches typically use LLMs as auxiliary components on top of signal-based systems rather than as primary decision-makers. Signal controllers remain vehicle-agnostic, reservation-based methods lack intent awareness, and recent LLM-based systems still depend on signal infrastructure. In addition, LLM inference latency limits their use in sub-second control settings. We propose LIDSA (LLM-Based Intent-Driven Speed Advisory), a signal-free cognitive arbitration framework for autonomous intersection management. LIDSA uses an LLM to reason over declared vehicle intents, incorporating priority classes, queue pressure, and energy preferences. We evaluate LIDSA against fixed-cycle control, SCATS, AIM, and GLOSA across varying traffic loads. Results show that LIDSA reduces mean control delay by up to 89.1% and maintains Level of Service C while all non-LLM baselines degrade to Level of Service F. Under near-saturated demand, LIDSA reduces mean waiting time by 93% and peak queue length by 60.6% relative to fixed-cycle control. It also lowers fuel consumption by up to 48.8% and achieves 86.2% intent satisfaction, compared to 61.2% for the best non-LLM method. These results demonstrate that LLM-based reasoning can enable real-time, signal-free intersection management.

cs.AI↗
arXiv2026

VARS-FL: Validation-Aligned Client Selection for Non-IID Federated Learning in IoT Systems

Federated learning (FL) systems typically employ stateless client selection, treating each communication round independently and ignoring accumulated evidence of client contribution quality. Under non-IID data, this leads to slow convergence and unstable training, particularly when selection relies on local proxies (e.g., training loss) that are misaligned with the global optimization objective. These challenges are especially pronounced in Internet of Things (IoT) and Industrial IoT (IIoT) environments, where data is highly heterogeneous and distributed across devices observing different traffic patterns. In this paper, we propose VARS-FL (Validation-Aligned Reputation Scoring for Federated Learning), a client selection framework that quantifies each client's contribution using the reduction in server-side validation loss induced by its update. These per-round signals are aggregated into a Reputation score that combines a sliding-window average of recent contributions with a logarithmically scaled participation term, enabling robust exploration-exploitation selection. VARS-FL requires no changes to local training or aggregation and remains fully compatible with standard FedAvg. We evaluate VARS-FL on a 15-class non-IID IoT intrusion detection task using the Edge-IIoTset dataset, with 100 clients across multiple seeds, and compare it against FedAvg, Oort, and Power-of-Choice. VARS-FL consistently improves accuracy, F1-Macro, and loss, while accelerating convergence (up to 36% fewer rounds to reach 80% accuracy). These results demonstrate that validation-aligned, history-aware client selection provides a more reliable and efficient training process for federated learning in heterogeneous IoT environments.

cs.LG↗
arXiv2026

6G Needs Agents: Toward Agentic AI-Native Networks for Autonomous Intelligence

Sixth-generation (6G) networks are increasingly envisioned as AI-native infrastructures integrating communication, sensing, and computing into a unified fabric. However, existing approaches remain largely optimization-centric, relying on closed-loop control with limited reasoning capability. In this paper, we argue for a paradigm shift toward Agentic AI-Native 6G, in which Large Language Model (LLM)-based agents operate as bounded, policy-governed reasoning entities within a semantic control plane layered above deterministic 3GPP infrastructure. We propose a four-layer architecture that integrates deterministic network infrastructure, semantic abstraction of intent and context, hierarchical reasoning, and a distributed multi-agent fabric spanning device, edge, and core domains. To assess feasibility, we develop a proof-of-concept agentic reasoning and orchestration framework and conduct an extensive empirical study using a domain-specific 6G benchmark under realistic deployment constraints. Our results reveal a fundamental tradeoff between reasoning capability and system efficiency, showing that no single model simultaneously satisfies latency, throughput, and accuracy requirements. Instead, heterogeneous deployment of LLM agents across the device--edge--core continuum is necessary to balance these constraints. We further demonstrate that quantization introduces non-uniform effects across models, reinforcing the need for system-level optimization rather than model-level compression alone. These findings establish agentic intelligence as a viable architectural direction for 6G and highlight key challenges in achieving scalable, trustworthy, and self-reasoning networks. All experimental results and evaluation scripts are publicly available to support reproducibility.

cs.NI↗
arXiv2026

From LLM Reasoning to Autonomous AI Agents: A Comprehensive Review

Large language models and autonomous AI agents have evolved rapidly, resulting in a diverse array of evaluation benchmarks, frameworks, and collaboration protocols. Driven by the growing need for standardized evaluation and integration, we systematically consolidate these fragmented efforts into a unified framework. However, the landscape remains fragmented and lacks a unified taxonomy or comprehensive survey. Therefore, we present a side-by-side comparison of benchmarks developed between 2019 and 2025 that evaluate these models and agents across multiple domains. In addition, we propose a taxonomy of approximately 60 benchmarks that cover general and academic knowledge reasoning, mathematical problem-solving, code generation and software engineering, factual grounding and retrieval, domain-specific evaluations, multimodal and embodied tasks, task orchestration, and interactive assessments. Furthermore, we review AI-agent frameworks introduced between 2023 and 2025 that integrate large language models with modular toolkits to enable autonomous decision-making and multi-step reasoning. Moreover, we present real-world applications of autonomous AI agents in materials science, biomedical research, academic ideation, software engineering, synthetic data generation, chemical reasoning, mathematical problem-solving, geographic information systems, multimedia, healthcare, and finance. We then survey key agent-to-agent collaboration protocols, namely the Agent Communication Protocol (ACP), the Model Context Protocol (MCP), and the Agent-to-Agent Protocol (A2A). Finally, we discuss recommendations for future research, focusing on advanced reasoning strategies, failure modes in multi-agent LLM systems, automated scientific discovery, dynamic tool integration via reinforcement learning, integrated search capabilities, and security vulnerabilities in agent protocols.

cs.AI↗
arXiv2026

FreeGNN: Continual Source-Free Graph Neural Network Adaptation for Renewable Energy Forecasting

Accurate forecasting of renewable energy generation is essential for efficient grid management and sustainable power planning. However, traditional supervised models often require access to labeled data from the target site, which may be unavailable due to privacy, cost, or logistical constraints. In this work, we propose FreeGNN, a Continual Source-Free Graph Domain Adaptation framework that enables adaptive forecasting on unseen renewable energy sites without requiring source data or target labels. Our approach integrates a spatio-temporal Graph Neural Network (GNN) backbone with a teacher--student strategy, a memory replay mechanism to mitigate catastrophic forgetting, graph-based regularization to preserve spatial correlations, and a drift-aware weighting scheme to dynamically adjust adaptation strength during streaming updates. This combination allows the model to continuously adapt to non-stationary environmental conditions while maintaining robustness and stability. We conduct extensive experiments on three real-world datasets: GEFCom2012, Solar PV, and Wind SCADA, encompassing multiple sites, temporal resolutions, and meteorological features. The ablation study confirms that each component memory, graph regularization, drift-aware adaptation, and teacher--student strategy contributes significantly to overall performance. The experiments show that FreeGNN achieves an MAE of 5.237 and an RMSE of 7.123 on the GEFCom dataset, an MAE of 1.107 and an RMSE of 1.512 on the Solar PV dataset, and an MAE of 0.382 and an RMSE of 0.523 on the Wind SCADA dataset. These results demonstrate its ability to achieve accurate and robust forecasts in a source-free, continual learning setting, highlighting its potential for real-world deployment in adaptive renewable energy systems. For reproducibility, implementation details are available at: https://github.com/AraoufBh/FreeGNN.

cs.LG↗
arXiv2026

6G-Bench: An Open Benchmark for Semantic Communication and Network-Level Reasoning with Foundation Models in AI-Native 6G Networks

This paper introduces 6G-Bench, an open benchmark for evaluating semantic communication and network-level reasoning in AI-native 6G networks. 6G-Bench defines a taxonomy of 30 decision-making tasks (T1--T30) extracted from ongoing 6G and AI-agent standardization activities in 3GPP, IETF, ETSI, ITU-T, and the O-RAN Alliance, and organizes them into five standardization-aligned capability categories. Starting from 113,475 scenarios, we generate a balanced pool of 10,000 very-hard multiple-choice questions using task-conditioned prompts that enforce multi-step quantitative reasoning under uncertainty and worst-case regret minimization over multi-turn horizons. After automated filtering and expert human validation, 3,722 questions are retained as a high-confidence evaluation set, while the full pool is released to support training and fine-tuning of 6G-specialized models. Using 6G-Bench, we evaluate 22 foundation models spanning dense and mixture-of-experts architectures, short- and long-context designs (up to 1M tokens), and both open-weight and proprietary systems. Across models, deterministic single-shot accuracy (pass@1) spans a wide range from 0.22 to 0.82, highlighting substantial variation in semantic reasoning capability. Leading models achieve intent and policy reasoning accuracy in the range 0.87--0.89, while selective robustness analysis on reasoning-intensive tasks shows pass@5 values ranging from 0.20 to 0.91. To support open science and reproducibility, we release the 6G-Bench dataset on GitHub: https://github.com/maferrag/6G-Bench

cs.NI↗
arXiv2026

$α^3$-SecBench: A Large-Scale Evaluation Suite of Security, Resilience, and Trust for LLM-based UAV Agents over 6G Networks

Autonomous unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) systems are increasingly deployed in safety-critical, networked environments where they must operate reliably in the presence of malicious adversaries. While recent benchmarks have evaluated large language model (LLM)-based UAV agents in reasoning, navigation, and efficiency, systematic assessment of security, resilience, and trust under adversarial conditions remains largely unexplored, particularly in emerging 6G-enabled settings. We introduce $α^{3}$-SecBench, the first large-scale evaluation suite for assessing the security-aware autonomy of LLM-based UAV agents under realistic adversarial interference. Building on multi-turn conversational UAV missions from $α^{3}$-Bench, the framework augments benign episodes with 20,000 validated security overlay attack scenarios targeting seven autonomy layers, including sensing, perception, planning, control, communication, edge/cloud infrastructure, and LLM reasoning. $α^{3}$-SecBench evaluates agents across three orthogonal dimensions: security (attack detection and vulnerability attribution), resilience (safe degradation behavior), and trust (policy-compliant tool usage). We evaluate 23 state-of-the-art LLMs from major industrial providers and leading AI labs using thousands of adversarially augmented UAV episodes sampled from a corpus of 113,475 missions spanning 175 threat types. While many models reliably detect anomalous behavior, effective mitigation, vulnerability attribution, and trustworthy control actions remain inconsistent. Normalized overall scores range from 12.9% to 57.1%, highlighting a significant gap between anomaly detection and security-aware autonomous decision-making. We release $α^{3}$-SecBench on GitHub: https://github.com/maferrag/AlphaSecBench

cs.CR↗
arXiv2026

AgentDrive: An Open Benchmark Dataset for Agentic AI Reasoning with LLM-Generated Scenarios in Autonomous Systems

The rapid advancement of large language models (LLMs) has sparked growing interest in their integration into autonomous systems for reasoning-driven perception, planning, and decision-making. However, evaluating and training such agentic AI models remains challenging due to the lack of large-scale, structured, and safety-critical benchmarks. This paper introduces AgentDrive, an open benchmark dataset containing 300,000 LLM-generated driving scenarios designed for training, fine-tuning, and evaluating autonomous agents under diverse conditions. AgentDrive formalizes a factorized scenario space across seven orthogonal axes: scenario type, driver behavior, environment, road layout, objective, difficulty, and traffic density. An LLM-driven prompt-to-JSON pipeline generates semantically rich, simulation-ready specifications that are validated against physical and schema constraints. Each scenario undergoes simulation rollouts, surrogate safety metric computation, and rule-based outcome labeling. To complement simulation-based evaluation, we introduce AgentDrive-MCQ, a 100,000-question multiple-choice benchmark spanning five reasoning dimensions: physics, policy, hybrid, scenario, and comparative reasoning. We conduct a large-scale evaluation of fifty leading LLMs on AgentDrive-MCQ. Results show that while proprietary frontier models perform best in contextual and policy reasoning, advanced open models are rapidly closing the gap in structured and physics-grounded reasoning. We release the AgentDrive dataset, AgentDrive-MCQ benchmark, evaluation code, and related materials at https://github.com/maferrag/AgentDrive

cs.AI↗
arXiv2026

Reasoning Beyond Limits: Advances and Open Problems for LLMs

Recent breakthroughs in generative reasoning have fundamentally reshaped how large language models (LLMs) address complex tasks, enabling them to dynamically retrieve, refine, and organize information into coherent multi-step reasoning chains. Techniques such as inference-time scaling, reinforcement learning, supervised fine-tuning, and distillation have been effectively applied to state-of-the-art models, including DeepSeek-R1, OpenAI o1 and o3, GPT-4o, Qwen-32B, and various Llama variants, significantly enhancing their reasoning capabilities. In this paper, we present a comprehensive review of the top 27 LLMs released between 2023 and 2025, such as Mistral AI Small 3 24B, DeepSeek-R1, Search-o1, QwQ-32B, and Phi-4, and analyze their core innovations and performance improvements. We also provide a detailed overview of recent advancements in multilingual large language models (MLLMs), emphasizing methods that improve cross-lingual reasoning and address the limitations of English-centric training. In parallel, we present a comprehensive review of progress in state space model (SSM)-based architectures, including models such as Mamba, which demonstrate improved efficiency for long-context processing compared to transformer-based approaches. Our analysis covers training strategies including general optimization techniques, mixture-of-experts (MoE) configurations, retrieval-augmented generation (RAG), chain-of-thought prompting, self-improvement methods, and test-time compute scaling and distillation frameworks. Finally, we identify key challenges for future research, including enabling multi-step reasoning without human supervision, improving robustness in chained task execution, balancing structured prompting with generative flexibility, and enhancing the integration of long-context retrieval and external tools.

cs.LG↗
arXiv2026

$α^3$-Bench: A Unified Benchmark of Safety, Robustness, and Efficiency for LLM-Based UAV Agents over 6G Networks

Large Language Models (LLMs) are increasingly used as high level controllers for autonomous Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) missions. However, existing evaluations rarely assess whether such agents remain safe, protocol compliant, and effective under realistic next generation networking constraints. This paper introduces $α^3$-Bench, a benchmark for evaluating LLM driven UAV autonomy as a multi turn conversational reasoning and control problem operating under dynamic 6G conditions. Each mission is formulated as a language mediated control loop between an LLM based UAV agent and a human operator, where decisions must satisfy strict schema validity, mission policies, speaker alternation, and safety constraints while adapting to fluctuating network slices, latency, jitter, packet loss, throughput, and edge load variations. To reflect modern agentic workflows, $α^3$-Bench integrates a dual action layer supporting both tool calls and agent to agent coordination, enabling evaluation of tool use consistency and multi agent interactions. We construct a large scale corpus of 113k conversational UAV episodes grounded in UAVBench scenarios and evaluate 17 state of the art LLMs using a fixed subset of 50 episodes per scenario under deterministic decoding. We propose a composite $α^3$ metric that unifies six pillars: Task Outcome, Safety Policy, Tool Consistency, Interaction Quality, Network Robustness, and Communication Cost, with efficiency normalized scores per second and per thousand tokens. Results show that while several models achieve high mission success and safety compliance, robustness and efficiency vary significantly under degraded 6G conditions, highlighting the need for network aware and resource efficient LLM based UAV agents. The dataset is publicly available on GitHub : https://github.com/maferrag/AlphaBench

eess.SY↗
arXiv2025

From Prompt Injections to Protocol Exploits: Threats in LLM-Powered AI Agents Workflows

Autonomous AI agents powered by large language models (LLMs) with structured function-calling interfaces enable real-time data retrieval, computation, and multi-step orchestration. However, the rapid growth of plugins, connectors, and inter-agent protocols has outpaced security practices, leading to brittle integrations that rely on ad-hoc authentication, inconsistent schemas, and weak validation. This survey introduces a unified end-to-end threat model for LLM-agent ecosystems, covering host-to-tool and agent-to-agent communications. We systematically categorize more than thirty attack techniques spanning input manipulation, model compromise, system and privacy attacks, and protocol-level vulnerabilities. For each category, we provide a formal threat formulation defining attacker capabilities, objectives, and affected system layers. Representative examples include Prompt-to-SQL injections and the Toxic Agent Flow exploit in GitHub MCP servers. We analyze attack feasibility, review existing defenses, and discuss mitigation strategies such as dynamic trust management, cryptographic provenance tracking, and sandboxed agent interfaces. The framework is validated through expert review and cross-mapping with real-world incidents and public vulnerability repositories, including CVE and NIST NVD. Compared to prior surveys, this work presents the first integrated taxonomy bridging input-level exploits and protocol-layer vulnerabilities in LLM-agent ecosystems, offering actionable guidance for designing secure and resilient agentic AI systems.

cs.CR↗
arXiv2025

The Hidden DNA of LLM-Generated JavaScript: Structural Patterns Enable High-Accuracy Authorship Attribution

In this paper, we present the first large-scale study exploring whether JavaScript code generated by Large Language Models (LLMs) can reveal which model produced it, enabling reliable authorship attribution and model fingerprinting. With the rapid rise of AI-generated code, attribution is playing a critical role in detecting vulnerabilities, flagging malicious content, and ensuring accountability. While AI-vs-human detection usually treats AI as a single category we show that individual LLMs leave unique stylistic signatures, even among models belonging to the same family or parameter size. To this end, we introduce LLM-NodeJS, a dataset of 50,000 Node.js back-end programs from 20 large language models. Each has four transformed variants, yielding 250,000 unique JavaScript samples and two additional representations (JSIR and AST) for diverse research applications. Using this dataset, we benchmark traditional machine learning classifiers against fine-tuned Transformer encoders and introduce CodeT5-JSA, a custom architecture derived from the 770M-parameter CodeT5 model with its decoder removed and a modified classification head. It achieves 95.8% accuracy on five-class attribution, 94.6% on ten-class, and 88.5% on twenty-class tasks, surpassing other tested models such as BERT, CodeBERT, and Longformer. We demonstrate that classifiers capture deeper stylistic regularities in program dataflow and structure, rather than relying on surface-level features. As a result, attribution remains effective even after mangling, comment removal, and heavy code transformations. To support open science and reproducibility, we release the LLM-NodeJS dataset, Google Colab training scripts, and all related materials on GitHub: https://github.com/LLM-NodeJS-dataset.

cs.CR↗
arXiv2025

UAVBench: An Open Benchmark Dataset for Autonomous and Agentic AI UAV Systems via LLM-Generated Flight Scenarios

Autonomous aerial systems increasingly rely on large language models (LLMs) for mission planning, perception, and decision-making, yet the lack of standardized and physically grounded benchmarks limits systematic evaluation of their reasoning capabilities. To address this gap, we introduce UAVBench, an open benchmark dataset comprising 50,000 validated UAV flight scenarios generated through taxonomy-guided LLM prompting and multi-stage safety validation. Each scenario is encoded in a structured JSON schema that includes mission objectives, vehicle configuration, environmental conditions, and quantitative risk labels, providing a unified representation of UAV operations across diverse domains. Building on this foundation, we present UAVBench_MCQ, a reasoning-oriented extension containing 50,000 multiple-choice questions spanning ten cognitive and ethical reasoning styles, ranging from aerodynamics and navigation to multi-agent coordination and integrated reasoning. This framework enables interpretable and machine-checkable assessment of UAV-specific cognition under realistic operational contexts. We evaluate 32 state-of-the-art LLMs, including GPT-5, ChatGPT-4o, Gemini 2.5 Flash, DeepSeek V3, Qwen3 235B, and ERNIE 4.5 300B, and find strong performance in perception and policy reasoning but persistent challenges in ethics-aware and resource-constrained decision-making. UAVBench establishes a reproducible and physically grounded foundation for benchmarking agentic AI in autonomous aerial systems and advancing next-generation UAV reasoning intelligence. To support open science and reproducibility, we release the UAVBench dataset, the UAVBench_MCQ benchmark, evaluation scripts, and all related materials on GitHub at https://github.com/maferrag/UAVBench

cs.AI↗
arXiv2025

Reliability and Resilience of AI-Driven Critical Network Infrastructure under Cyber-Physical Threats

The increasing reliance on AI-driven 5G/6G network infrastructures for mission-critical services highlights the need for reliability and resilience against sophisticated cyber-physical threats. These networks are highly exposed to novel attack surfaces due to their distributed intelligence, virtualized resources, and cross-domain integration. This paper proposes a fault-tolerant and resilience-aware framework that integrates AI-driven anomaly detection, adaptive routing, and redundancy mechanisms to mitigate cascading failures under cyber-physical attack conditions. A comprehensive validation is carried out using NS-3 simulations, where key performance indicators such as reliability, latency, resilience index, and packet loss rate are analyzed under various attack scenarios. The deduced results demonstrate that the proposed framework significantly improves fault recovery, stabilizes packet delivery, and reduces service disruption compared to baseline approaches.

cs.CR↗
arXiv2025

Innovating Augmented Reality Security: Recent E2E Encryption Approaches

End-to-end encryption (E2EE) has emerged as a fundamental element of modern digital communication, protecting data from unauthorized access during transmission. By design, E2EE ensures that only the intended recipient can decrypt the information, making it inaccessible even to service providers. Yet, this powerful safeguard of individual privacy and digital trust also introduces a paradox: it can simultaneously prevent law enforcement efforts by hiding potential malicious activities. This paper examines the dual role of E2EE, its critical importance to privacy, the challenges it

cs.CR↗
arXiv2025

I Know Which LLM Wrote Your Code Last Summer: LLM generated Code Stylometry for Authorship Attribution

Detecting AI-generated code, deepfakes, and other synthetic content is an emerging research challenge. As code generated by Large Language Models (LLMs) becomes more common, identifying the specific model behind each sample is increasingly important. This paper presents the first systematic study of LLM authorship attribution for C programs. We released CodeT5-Authorship, a novel model that uses only the encoder layers from the original CodeT5 encoder-decoder architecture, discarding the decoder to focus on classification. Our model's encoder output (first token) is passed through a two-layer classification head with GELU activation and dropout, producing a probability distribution over possible authors. To evaluate our approach, we introduce LLM-AuthorBench, a benchmark of 32,000 compilable C programs generated by eight state-of-the-art LLMs across diverse tasks. We compare our model to seven traditional ML classifiers and eight fine-tuned transformer models, including BERT, RoBERTa, CodeBERT, ModernBERT, DistilBERT, DeBERTa-V3, Longformer, and LoRA-fine-tuned Qwen2-1.5B. In binary classification, our model achieves 97.56% accuracy in distinguishing C programs generated by closely related models such as GPT-4.1 and GPT-4o, and 95.40% accuracy for multi-class attribution among five leading LLMs (Gemini 2.5 Flash, Claude 3.5 Haiku, GPT-4.1, Llama 3.3, and DeepSeek-V3). To support open science, we release the CodeT5-Authorship architecture, the LLM-AuthorBench benchmark, and all relevant Google Colab scripts on GitHub: https://github.com/LLMauthorbench/.

cs.LG↗