arXiv subjects

Mykola Makhortykh

Publications and source records attributed to Mykola Makhortykh.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

arXiv2026

SWARM: A Multilingual Human-Annotated Dataset for Russian Propaganda Detection in Search Engine Results

Russian state propaganda spreads across many languages and online spaces. Yet, most computational work examines only one such space, usually social media, in one or two languages, and analyses sources rather than content. We introduce SWARM (Search-Web documents Annotated for Russian propaganda, Multilingual), a dataset of 2,183 search engine results across nine languages and diverse web domains (e.g., news, blogs, government sites), each annotated by trained coders for whether it supports a recurring Russian propaganda narrative. We benchmark a source-based blocklist, supervised classifiers, and zero-shot LLMs against these labels. The blocklist misses most propaganda-supporting documents, because such content is not confined to flagged "propaganda" outlets but also appears on mainstream ones. Content-level analysis helps, though how much depends on the model: the strongest LLM reaches a positive-class F1 of 0.73, whereas the supervised classifiers reach only about 0.5, with the smaller LLMs over-predicting support, mistaking topical relevance for endorsement. Detecting search-borne propaganda thus requires per-language, content-level evaluation, which we hope SWARM and our evaluation code enable.

cs.CL↗

arXiv2026

High-Risk Memories? Comparative audit of the representation of Second World War atrocities in Ukraine by generative AI applications

The rise of generative artificial intelligence (genAI) models poses new possibilities and risks for how the past is remembered by accelerating content production and altering the process of information discovery. The most critical risk is historical misrepresentation, which ranges from the distortion of facts and inaccurate depiction of specific groups to more subtle forms, such as the selective moralization of history. The dangers of misrepresentation of the past are particularly pronounced for high-risk memories, such as memories of past atrocities, which have a strong emotional load and are often instrumentalised by political actors. To understand how substantive this risk is, we empirically investigate how genAI applications deal with high-risk memories of the Second World War atrocities in Ukraine. This case is crucial due to the scope of the atrocities and the intense, often instrumentalised, contestation surrounding their memory. We audit the performance of three common genAI applications for different types of misrepresentation, including hallucinations and inconsistent moralization, and discuss the implications for future memory practices.

cs.CY↗

arXiv2026

Analyzing Far-Right Telegram Channels as Constituents of Information Autocracy in Russia

This study examines how Russian far-right communities on Telegram shape perceptions of political figures through memes and visual narratives. Far from passive spectators, these actors co-produce propaganda, blending state-aligned messages with their own extremist framings. In Russia, such groups are central because they articulate the ideological foundations of the war against Ukraine and reflect the regime's gradual drift toward ultranationalist rhetoric. Drawing on a dataset of 200,000 images from expert-selected far-right Telegram channels, the study employs computer vision and unsupervised clustering to identify memes featuring Russian (Putin, Shoigu) and foreign politicians (Zelensky, Biden, Trump) and to reveal recurrent visual patterns in their representation. By leveraging the large-scale and temporal depth of this dataset, the analysis uncovers differential patterns of legitimation and delegitimation across actors and over time. These insights are not attainable in smaller-scale studies. Preliminary findings show that far-right memes function as instruments of propaganda co-production. These communities do not simply echo official messages but generate bottom-up narratives of legitimation and delegitimation that align with state ideology. By framing leaders as heroic and opponents as corrupt or weak, far-right actors act as informal co-creators of authoritarian legitimacy within Russia's informational autocracy.

cs.CY↗

arXiv2025

Generic visuality of war? How image-generative AI models (mis)represent Russia's war against Ukraine

The rise of generative AI (genAI) can transform the representation of different aspects of social reality, including modern wars. While scholarship has largely focused on the military applications of AI, the growing adoption of genAI technologies may have major implications for how wars are portrayed, remembered, and interpreted. A few initial scholarly inquiries highlight the risks of genAI in this context, specifically regarding its potential to distort the representation of mass violence, particularly by sanitising and homogenising it. However, little is known about how genAI representation practices vary between different episodes of violence portrayed by Western and non-Western genAI models. Using the Russian aggression against Ukraine as a case study, we audit how two image-generative models, the US-based Midjourney and the Russia-based Kandinsky, represent both fictional and factual episodes of the war. We then analyse the models' responsiveness to the war-related prompts, together with the aesthetic and content-based aspects of the resulting images. Our findings highlight that contextual factors lead to variation in the representation of war, both between models and within the outputs of the same model. However, there are some consistent patterns of representation that may contribute to the homogenization of war aesthetics.

cs.CY↗

arXiv2025

Invisible in Search? Auditing Aesthetic Bias in the Visual Representation of Holocaust Victims on Google

Information retrieval systems, such as search engines, increasingly shape the representation of the past and present states of social reality. Despite their importance, these systems face challenges in dealing with the ethical aspects of representation due to various forms of bias, including aesthetic bias that perpetuates hegemonic patterns of representation. While most research on aesthetic bias has examined it in the context of current societal issues, it is also crucial for historical representation, particularly of sensitive subjects such as historical atrocities. To address this gap, we conduct a comparative audit of the visual representation of Holocaust victims on Google. We find that Google tends to propagate a male-dominated representation of Holocaust victims with an emphasis on atrocity context, risking rendering invisible gender-specific suffering and decreasing potential for nurturing empathy. We also observe a variation in representation across geographic locations, suggesting that search algorithms may produce their own aesthetic of victimhood.

cs.CY↗

arXiv2025

Incorporation of journalistic approaches into algorithm design

The growing adoption of algorithm-powered tools in journalism enables new possibilities and raises many concerns. One way of addressing these concerns is by integrating journalistic practices and values into the design of algorithms that facilitate different journalistic tasks, from automated content generation to news content distribution. In this chapter, we discuss how such integration can happen. To do this, we first introduce the concepts of algorithms and different perspectives on algorithm design and then scrutinize various journalistic viewpoints on the matter and methodological approaches for studying these perspectives and their translation into specific algorithm-powered journalistic tools. We conclude by discussing important directions for future research, ranging from contextualizing journalistic approaches to algorithm design to accounting for the transformative impacts of artificial intelligence (AI) technologies.

cs.CY↗

arXiv2025

Evolution of wartime discourse on Telegram: A comparative study of Ukrainian and Russian policymakers' communication before and after Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine

This study examines elite-driven political communication on Telegram during the ongoing Russo-Ukrainian war, the first large-scale European war in the social media era. Using a unique dataset of Telegram public posts from Ukrainian and Russian policymakers (2019-2024), we analyze changes in communication volume, thematic content, and actor engagement following Russia's 2022 full-scale invasion. Our findings show a sharp increase in Telegram activity after the invasion, particularly among ruling-party policymakers. Ukrainian policymakers initially focused on war-related topics, but this emphasis declined over time In contrast, Russian policymakers largely avoided war-related discussions, instead emphasizing unrelated topics, such as Western crises, to distract public attention. We also identify differences in communication strategies between large and small parties, as well as individual policymakers. Our findings shed light on how policymakers adapt to wartime communication challenges and offer critical insights into the dynamics of online political discourse during times of war.

cs.SI↗

arXiv2025

Campaigning through the lens of Google: A large-scale algorithm audit of Google searches in the run-up to the Swiss Federal Elections 2023

Search engines like Google have become major sources of information for voters during election campaigns. To assess potential biases across candidates' gender and partisan identities in the algorithmic curation of candidate information, we conducted a large-scale algorithm audit analyzing Google's selection and ranking of information about candidates for the 2023 Swiss Federal Elections, three and one week before the election day. Results indicate that text searches prioritize media sources in search output but less so for women politicians. Image searches revealed a tendency to reinforce stereotypes about women candidates, marked by a disproportionate focus on stereotypically pleasant emotions for women, particularly among right-leaning candidates. Crucially, we find that patterns of candidates' representation in Google text and image searches are predictive of their electoral performance.

cs.CY↗

arXiv2025

Digital Dybbuks and Virtual Golems: The Ethics of Digital Duplicates in Holocaust Testimony

Advances in generative artificial intelligence (AI) have driven a growing effort to create digital duplicates. These semi-autonomous recreations of living and dead people can be used for many purposes. Some of these purposes include tutoring, coping with grief, and attending business meetings. However, the normative implications of digital duplicates remain obscure, particularly considering the possibility of them being applied to genocide memory and education. To address this gap, we examine normative possibilities and risks associated with the use of more advanced forms of generative AI-enhanced duplicates for transmitting Holocaust survivor testimonies. We first review the historical and contemporary uses of survivor testimonies. Then, we scrutinize the possible benefits of using digital duplicates in this context and apply the Minimally Viable Permissibility Principle (MVPP). The MVPP is an analytical framework for evaluating the risks of digital duplicates. It includes five core components: the need for authentic presence, consent, positive value, transparency, and harm-risk mitigation. Using MVPP, we identify potential harms digital duplicates might pose to different actors, including survivors, users, and developers. We also propose technical and socio-technical mitigation strategies to address these harms.

cs.CY↗

arXiv2025

From prosthetic memory to prosthetic denial: Auditing whether large language models are prone to mass atrocity denialism

The proliferation of large language models (LLMs) can influence how historical narratives are disseminated and perceived. This study explores the implications of LLMs' responses on the representation of mass atrocity memory, examining whether generative AI systems contribute to prosthetic memory, i.e., mediated experiences of historical events, or to what we term "prosthetic denial," the AI-mediated erasure or distortion of atrocity memories. We argue that LLMs function as interfaces that can elicit prosthetic memories and, therefore, act as experiential sites for memory transmission, but also introduce risks of denialism, particularly when their outputs align with contested or revisionist narratives. To empirically assess these risks, we conducted a comparative audit of five LLMs (Claude, GPT, Llama, Mixtral, and Gemini) across four historical case studies: the Holodomor, the Holocaust, the Cambodian Genocide, and the genocide against the Tutsis in Rwanda. Each model was prompted with questions addressing common denialist claims in English and an alternative language relevant to each case (Ukrainian, German, Khmer, and French). Our findings reveal that while LLMs generally produce accurate responses for widely documented events like the Holocaust, significant inconsistencies and susceptibility to denialist framings are observed for more underrepresented cases like the Cambodian Genocide. The disparities highlight the influence of training data availability and the probabilistic nature of LLM responses on memory integrity. We conclude that while LLMs extend the concept of prosthetic memory, their unmoderated use risks reinforcing historical denialism, raising ethical concerns for (digital) memory preservation, and potentially challenging the advantageous role of technology associated with the original values of prosthetic memory.

cs.CY↗

arXiv2025

Fact-checking with Generative AI: A Systematic Cross-Topic Examination of LLMs Capacity to Detect Veracity of Political Information

The purpose of this study is to assess how large language models (LLMs) can be used for fact-checking and contribute to the broader debate on the use of automated means for veracity identification. To achieve this purpose, we use AI auditing methodology that systematically evaluates performance of five LLMs (ChatGPT 4, Llama 3 (70B), Llama 3.1 (405B), Claude 3.5 Sonnet, and Google Gemini) using prompts regarding a large set of statements fact-checked by professional journalists (16,513). Specifically, we use topic modeling and regression analysis to investigate which factors (e.g. topic of the prompt or the LLM type) affect evaluations of true, false, and mixed statements. Our findings reveal that while ChatGPT 4 and Google Gemini achieved higher accuracy than other models, overall performance across models remains modest. Notably, the results indicate that models are better at identifying false statements, especially on sensitive topics such as COVID-19, American political controversies, and social issues, suggesting possible guardrails that may enhance accuracy on these topics. The major implication of our findings is that there are significant challenges for using LLMs for factchecking, including significant variation in performance across different LLMs and unequal quality of outputs for specific topics which can be attributed to deficits of training data. Our research highlights the potential and limitations of LLMs in political fact-checking, suggesting potential avenues for further improvements in guardrails as well as fine-tuning.

cs.CL↗

arXiv2025

WEIRD Audits? Research Trends, Linguistic and Geographical Disparities in the Algorithm Audits of Online Platforms -- A Systematic Literature Review

The increasing reliance on complex algorithmic systems by online platforms has sparked a growing need for algorithm auditing, a methodology evaluating these systems' functionality and impact. In this paper, we systematically review 176 peer-reviewed online platform-focused algorithm auditing studies and identify trends in their methodological approaches, the geographic distribution of authors, and the selection of platforms, languages, geographies, and group-based attributes in the focus of the reviewed research. We find a significant skew of research focus towards few online platforms, Western contexts, particularly the US, and English language data. Additionally, our analysis indicates a tendency to focus on a narrow set of group-based attributes, often operationalized in simplified ways, which might obscure more nuanced aspects of algorithmic bias and discrimination. We provide a clearer understanding of the current state of the online platform-focused algorithm auditing and identify gaps to be addressed for a more inclusive and representative research landscape.

cs.HC↗

arXiv2025

Search engines in polarized media environment: Auditing political information curation on Google and Bing prior to 2024 US elections

Search engines play an important role in the context of modern elections. By curating information in response to user queries, search engines influence how individuals are informed about election-related developments and perceive the media environment in which elections take place. It has particular implications for (perceived) polarization, especially if search engines' curation results in a skewed treatment of information sources based on their political leaning. Until now, however, it is unclear whether such a partisan gap emerges through information curation on search engines and what user- and system-side factors affect it. To address this shortcoming, we audit the two largest Western search engines, Google and Bing, prior to the 2024 US presidential elections and examine how these search engines' organic search results and additional interface elements represent election-related information depending on the queries' slant, user location, and time when the search was conducted. Our findings indicate that both search engines tend to prioritize left-leaning media sources, with the exact scope of search results' ideological slant varying between Democrat- and Republican-focused queries. We also observe limited effects of location- and time-based factors on organic search results, whereas results for additional interface elements were more volatile over time and specific US states. Together, our observations highlight that search engines' information curation actively mirrors the partisan divides present in the US media environments and has the potential to contribute to (perceived) polarization within these environments.

cs.CY↗

arXiv2025

Examining bias perpetuation in academic search engines: an algorithm audit of Google and Semantic Scholar

Researchers rely on academic Web search engines to find scientific sources, but search engine mechanisms may selectively present content that aligns with biases embedded in queries. This study examines whether confirmation biased queries prompted into Google Scholar and Semantic Scholar will yield results aligned with a query's bias. Six queries (topics across health and technology domains such as vaccines, Internet use) were analyzed for disparities in search results. We confirm that biased queries (targeting benefits or risks) affect search results in line with bias, with technology-related queries displaying more significant disparities. Overall, Semantic Scholar exhibited fewer disparities than Google Scholar. Topics rated as more polarizing did not consistently show more disparate results. Academic search results that perpetuate confirmation bias have strong implications for both researchers and citizens searching for evidence. More research is needed to explore how scientific inquiry and academic search engines interact.

cs.CY↗

arXiv2024

Google, How Should I Vote? How Users Formulate Search Queries to Find Political Information on Search Engines

Search engine results depend not only on the algorithms but also on how users interact with them. However, factors affecting the selection of a search query remain understudied. Using a representative survey of Swiss citizens before a round of federal popular votes, this study examines how users formulate search queries related to the retirement policies that were voted on in March 2024. Contrary to existing research, we find no direct evidence of selective exposure, or users' tendency to search for pro-attitudinal information, which we explain by the less polarizing search topics. However, we find that the sentiment of the query is partially aligned with the expected vote outcome. Our results also suggest that undecided and non-voters are more likely to search for nuanced information, such as consequences and interpretations of the policies. The perceived importance and effect of the issue, political views, and sociodemographics also affect query formulation.

cs.HC↗

arXiv2024

LLMs as information warriors? Auditing how LLM-powered chatbots tackle disinformation about Russia's war in Ukraine

The rise of large language models (LLMs) has a significant impact on information warfare. By facilitating the production of content related to disinformation and propaganda campaigns, LLMs can amplify different types of information operations and mislead online users. In our study, we empirically investigate how LLM-powered chatbots, developed by Google, Microsoft, and Perplexity, handle disinformation about Russia's war in Ukraine and whether the chatbots' ability to provide accurate information on the topic varies across languages and over time. Our findings indicate that while for some chatbots (Perplexity), there is a significant improvement in performance over time in several languages, for others (Gemini), the performance improves only in English but deteriorates in low-resource languages.

cs.CY↗

arXiv2024

Finding frames with BERT: A transformer-based approach to generic news frame detection

Framing is among the most extensively used concepts in the field of communication science. The availability of digital data offers new possibilities for studying how specific aspects of social reality are made more salient in online communication but also raises challenges related to the scaling of framing analysis and its adoption to new research areas (e.g. studying the impact of artificial intelligence-powered systems on representation of societally relevant issues). To address these challenges, we introduce a transformer-based approach for generic news frame detection in Anglophone online content. While doing so, we discuss the composition of the training and test datasets, the model architecture, and the validation of the approach and reflect on the possibilities and limitations of the automated detection of generic news frames.

cs.CL↗

arXiv2024

Googling the Big Lie: Search Engines, News Media, and the US 2020 Election Conspiracy

The conspiracy theory that the US 2020 presidential election was fraudulent - the Big Lie - remained a prominent part of the media agenda months after the election. Whether and how search engines prioritized news stories that sought to thoroughly debunk the claims, provide a simple negation, or support the conspiracy is crucial for understanding information exposure on the topic. We investigate how search engines provided news on this conspiracy by conducting a large-scale algorithm audit evaluating differences between three search engines (Google, DuckDuckGo, and Bing), across three locations (Ohio, California, and the UK), and using eleven search queries. Results show that simply denying the conspiracy is the largest debunking strategy across all search engines. While Google has a strong mainstreaming effect on articles explicitly focused on the Big Lie - providing thorough debunks and alternative explanations - DuckDuckGo and Bing display, depending on the location, a large share of articles either supporting the conspiracy or failing to debunk it. Lastly, we find that niche ideologically driven search queries (e.g., "sharpie marker ballots Arizona") do not lead to more conspiracy-supportive material. Instead, content supporting the conspiracy is largely a product of broader ideology-agnostic search queries (e.g., "voter fraud 2020").

cs.IR↗