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Pedro Reviriego

Publications and source records attributed to Pedro Reviriego.

At least 37 records · Page 2Linked to original sources
arXiv2025

Psycholinguistic Word Features: a New Approach for the Evaluation of LLMs Alignment with Humans

The evaluation of LLMs has so far focused primarily on how well they can perform different tasks such as reasoning, question-answering, paraphrasing, or translating. For most of these tasks, performance can be measured with objective metrics, such as the number of correct answers. However, other language features are not easily quantified. For example, arousal, concreteness, or gender associated with a given word, as well as the extent to which we experience words with senses and relate them to a specific sense. Those features have been studied for many years by psycholinguistics, conducting large-scale experiments with humans to produce ratings for thousands of words. This opens an opportunity to evaluate how well LLMs align with human ratings on these word features, taking advantage of existing studies that cover many different language features in a large number of words. In this paper, we evaluate the alignment of a representative group of LLMs with human ratings on two psycholinguistic datasets: the Glasgow and Lancaster norms. These datasets cover thirteen features over thousands of words. The results show that alignment is \textcolor{black}{generally} better in the Glasgow norms evaluated (arousal, valence, dominance, concreteness, imageability, familiarity, and gender) than on the Lancaster norms evaluated (introceptive, gustatory, olfactory, haptic, auditory, and visual). This suggests a potential limitation of current LLMs in aligning with human sensory associations for words, which may be due to their lack of embodied cognition present in humans and illustrates the usefulness of evaluating LLMs with psycholinguistic datasets.

cs.CL↗
arXiv2025

Recursive InPainting (RIP): how much information is lost under recursive inferences?

The rapid adoption of generative artificial intelligence (AI) is accelerating content creation and modification. For example, variations of a given content, be it text or images, can be created almost instantly and at a low cost. This will soon lead to the majority of text and images being created directly by AI models or by humans assisted by AI. This poses new risks; for example, AI-generated content may be used to train newer AI models and degrade their performance, or information may be lost in the transformations made by AI which could occur when the same content is processed over and over again by AI tools. An example of AI image modifications is inpainting in which an AI model completes missing fragments of an image. The incorporation of inpainting tools into photo editing programs promotes their adoption and encourages their recursive use to modify images. Inpainting can be applied recursively, starting from an image, removing some parts, applying inpainting to reconstruct the image, revising it, and then starting the inpainting process again on the reconstructed image, etc. This paper presents an empirical evaluation of recursive inpainting when using one of the most widely used image models: Stable Diffusion. The inpainting process is applied by randomly selecting a fragment of the image, reconstructing it, selecting another fragment, and repeating the process a predefined number of iterations. The images used in the experiments are taken from a publicly available art data set and correspond to different styles and historical periods. Additionally, photographs are also evaluated as a reference. The modified images are compared with the original ones by both using quantitative metrics and performing a qualitative analysis. The results show that recursive inpainting in some cases modifies the image so that it still resembles the original one while in others leads to degeneration.

cs.CV↗
arXiv2025

Have Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) Really Learned to Tell the Time on Analog Clocks?

Multimodal Large Language Models which can answer complex questions on an image struggle to tell the time on analog clocks. This is probably due to the lack of images with clocks at different times in their training set. In this work we explore this issue with one of the latest MLLMs: GPT-4.1 to understand why MLLMs fail to tell the time and whether fine-tuning can solve the problem. The results show how models are making progress in reading the time on analog clocks. But have they really learned to do it, or have they only learned patterns in their training datasets? In this work we put the models to the test with different clocks to illustrate the limitations of MLLMs to abstract and generalize.

cs.CL↗
arXiv2025

It's the same but not the same: Do LLMs distinguish Spanish varieties?

In recent years, large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated a high capacity for understanding and generating text in Spanish. However, with five hundred million native speakers, Spanish is not a homogeneous language but rather one rich in diatopic variations spanning both sides of the Atlantic. For this reason, in this study, we evaluate the ability of nine language models to identify and distinguish the morphosyntactic and lexical peculiarities of seven varieties of Spanish (Andean, Antillean, Continental Caribbean, Chilean, Peninsular, Mexican and Central American and Rioplatense) through a multiple-choice test. The results indicate that the Peninsular Spanish variety is the best identified by all models and that, among them, GPT-4o is the only model capable of recognizing the variability of the Spanish language. -- En los últimos años, los grandes modelos de lenguaje (LLMs, por sus siglas en inglés) han demostrado una alta capacidad para comprender y generar texto en español. Sin embargo, con quinientos millones de hablantes nativos, la española no es una lengua homogénea, sino rica en variedades diatópicas que se extienden a ambos lados del Atlántico. Por todo ello, evaluamos en este trabajo la capacidad de nueve modelos de lenguaje de identificar y discernir las peculiaridades morfosintácticas y léxicas de siete variedades de español (andino, antillano, caribeño continental, chileno, español peninsular, mexicano y centroamericano y rioplatense) mediante un test de respuesta múltiple. Los resultados obtenidos indican que la variedad de español peninsular es la mejor identificada por todos los modelos y que, de entre todos, GPT-4o es el único modelo capaz de identificar la variabilidad de la lengua española.

cs.CL↗
arXiv2025

Playing with words: Comparing the vocabulary and lexical diversity of ChatGPT and humans

The introduction of Artificial Intelligence (AI) generative language models such as GPT (Generative Pre-trained Transformer) and tools such as ChatGPT has triggered a revolution that can transform how text is generated. This has many implications, for example, as AI-generated text becomes a significant fraction of the text, would this have an effect on the language capabilities of readers and also on the training of newer AI tools? Would it affect the evolution of languages? Focusing on one specific aspect of the language: words; will the use of tools such as ChatGPT increase or reduce the vocabulary used or the lexical richness? This has implications for words, as those not included in AI-generated content will tend to be less and less popular and may eventually be lost. In this work, we perform an initial comparison of the vocabulary and lexical richness of ChatGPT and humans when performing the same tasks. In more detail, two datasets containing the answers to different types of questions answered by ChatGPT and humans, and a third dataset in which ChatGPT paraphrases sentences and questions are used. The analysis shows that ChatGPT tends to use fewer distinct words and lower lexical richness than humans. These results are very preliminary and additional datasets and ChatGPT configurations have to be evaluated to extract more general conclusions. Therefore, further research is needed to understand how the use of ChatGPT and more broadly generative AI tools will affect the vocabulary and lexical richness in different types of text and languages.

cs.CL↗
arXiv2025

Can ChatGPT Learn to Count Letters?

Large language models (LLMs) struggle on simple tasks such as counting the number of occurrences of a letter in a word. In this paper, we investigate if ChatGPT can learn to count letters and propose an efficient solution.

cs.CL↗
arXiv2024

Why Do Large Language Models (LLMs) Struggle to Count Letters?

Large Language Models (LLMs) have achieved unprecedented performance on many complex tasks, being able, for example, to answer questions on almost any topic. However, they struggle with other simple tasks, such as counting the occurrences of letters in a word, as illustrated by the inability of many LLMs to count the number of "r" letters in "strawberry". Several works have studied this problem and linked it to the tokenization used by LLMs, to the intrinsic limitations of the attention mechanism, or to the lack of character-level training data. In this paper, we conduct an experimental study to evaluate the relations between the LLM errors when counting letters with 1) the frequency of the word and its components in the training dataset and 2) the complexity of the counting operation. We present a comprehensive analysis of the errors of LLMs when counting letter occurrences by evaluating a representative group of models over a large number of words. The results show a number of consistent trends in the models evaluated: 1) models are capable of recognizing the letters but not counting them; 2) the frequency of the word and tokens in the word does not have a significant impact on the LLM errors; 3) there is a positive correlation of letter frequency with errors, more frequent letters tend to have more counting errors, 4) the errors show a strong correlation with the number of letters or tokens in a word and 5) the strongest correlation occurs with the number of letters with counts larger than one, with most models being unable to correctly count words in which letters appear more than twice.

cs.CL↗
arXiv2024

Beware of Words: Evaluating the Lexical Diversity of Conversational LLMs using ChatGPT as Case Study

The performance of conversational Large Language Models (LLMs) in general, and of ChatGPT in particular, is currently being evaluated on many different tasks, from logical reasoning or maths to answering questions on a myriad of topics. Instead, much less attention is being devoted to the study of the linguistic features of the texts generated by these LLMs. This is surprising since LLMs are models for language, and understanding how they use the language is important. Indeed, conversational LLMs are poised to have a significant impact on the evolution of languages as they may eventually dominate the creation of new text. This means that for example, if conversational LLMs do not use a word it may become less and less frequent and eventually stop being used altogether. Therefore, evaluating the linguistic features of the text they produce and how those depend on the model parameters is the first step toward understanding the potential impact of conversational LLMs on the evolution of languages. In this paper, we consider the evaluation of the lexical richness of the text generated by LLMs and how it depends on the model parameters. A methodology is presented and used to conduct a comprehensive evaluation of lexical richness using ChatGPT as a case study. The results show how lexical richness depends on the version of ChatGPT and some of its parameters, such as the presence penalty, or on the role assigned to the model. The dataset and tools used in our analysis are released under open licenses with the goal of drawing the much-needed attention to the evaluation of the linguistic features of LLM-generated text.

cs.CL↗
arXiv2024

Open Conversational LLMs do not know most Spanish words

The growing interest in Large Language Models (LLMs) and in particular in conversational models with which users can interact has led to the development of a large number of open-source chat LLMs. These models are evaluated on a wide range of benchmarks to assess their capabilities in answering questions or solving problems on almost any possible topic or to test their ability to reason or interpret texts. Instead, the evaluation of the knowledge that these models have of the languages has received much less attention. For example, the words that they can recognize and use in different languages. In this paper, we evaluate the knowledge that open-source chat LLMs have of Spanish words by testing a sample of words in a reference dictionary. The results show that open-source chat LLMs produce incorrect meanings for an important fraction of the words and are not able to use most of the words correctly to write sentences with context. These results show how Spanish is left behind in the open-source LLM race and highlight the need to push for linguistic fairness in conversational LLMs ensuring that they provide similar performance across languages.

cs.CL↗
arXiv2024

Analyzing Recursiveness in Multimodal Generative Artificial Intelligence: Stability or Divergence?

One of the latest trends in generative Artificial Intelligence is tools that generate and analyze content in different modalities, such as text and images, and convert information from one to the other. From a conceptual point of view, it is interesting to study whether these modality changes incur information loss and to what extent. This is analogous to variants of the classical game telephone, where players alternate between describing images and creating drawings based on those descriptions leading to unexpected transformations of the original content. In the case of AI, modality changes can be applied recursively, starting from an image to extract a text that describes it; using the text to generate a second image, extracting a text that describes it, and so on. As this process is applied recursively, AI tools are generating content from one mode to use them to create content in another mode and so on. Ideally, the embeddings of all of them would remain close to those of the original content so that only small variations are observed in the generated content versus the original one. However, it may also be the case the distance to the original embeddings increases in each iteration leading to a divergence in the process and to content that is barely related to the original one. In this paper, we present the results of an empirical study on the impact of recursive modality changes using GPT-4o, a state-of-the-art AI multimodal tool, and DALL-E 3. The results show that the multimodality loop diverges from the initial image without converging to anything specific. We have observed differences depending on the type of initial image and the configuration of the models. These findings are particularly relevant due to the increasing use of these tools for content generation, reconstruction, and adaptation, and their potential implications for the content on the Internet of the future.

cs.MM↗
arXiv2024

Evaluating Large Language Models with Tests of Spanish as a Foreign Language: Pass or Fail?

Large Language Models (LLMs) have been profusely evaluated on their ability to answer questions on many topics and their performance on different natural language understanding tasks. Those tests are usually conducted in English, but most LLM users are not native English speakers. Therefore, it is of interest to analyze how LLMs understand other languages at different levels: from paragraphs to morphems. In this paper, we evaluate the performance of state-of-the-art LLMs in TELEIA, a recently released benchmark with similar questions to those of Spanish exams for foreign students, covering topics such as reading comprehension, word formation, meaning and compositional semantics, and grammar. The results show that LLMs perform well at understanding Spanish but are still far from achieving the level of a native speaker in terms of grammatical competence.

cs.CL↗
arXiv2024

Adaptive Resolution Inference (ARI): Energy-Efficient Machine Learning for Internet of Things

The implementation of machine learning in Internet of Things devices poses significant operational challenges due to limited energy and computation resources. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to implement simplified ML models that can achieve reasonable performance while reducing computation and energy, for example by pruning weights in neural networks, or using reduced precision for the parameters and arithmetic operations. However, this type of approach is limited by the performance of the ML implementation, i.e., by the loss for example in accuracy due to the model simplification. In this article, we present adaptive resolution inference (ARI), a novel approach that enables to evaluate new tradeoffs between energy dissipation and model performance in ML implementations. The main principle of the proposed approach is to run inferences with reduced precision (quantization) and use the margin over the decision threshold to determine if either the result is reliable, or the inference must run with the full model. The rationale is that quantization only introduces small deviations in the inference scores, such that if the scores have a sufficient margin over the decision threshold, it is unlikely that the full model would have a different result. Therefore, we can run the quantized model first, and only when the scores do not have a sufficient margin, the full model is run. This enables most inferences to run with the reduced precision model and only a small fraction requires the full model, so significantly reducing computation and energy while not affecting model performance. The proposed ARI approach is presented, analyzed in detail, and evaluated using different data sets for floating-point and stochastic computing implementations. The results show that ARI can significantly reduce the energy for inference in different configurations with savings between 40% and 85%.

cs.LG↗
arXiv2024

Using large language models to estimate features of multi-word expressions: Concreteness, valence, arousal

This study investigates the potential of large language models (LLMs) to provide accurate estimates of concreteness, valence and arousal for multi-word expressions. Unlike previous artificial intelligence (AI) methods, LLMs can capture the nuanced meanings of multi-word expressions. We systematically evaluated ChatGPT-4o's ability to predict concreteness, valence and arousal. In Study 1, ChatGPT-4o showed strong correlations with human concreteness ratings (r = .8) for multi-word expressions. In Study 2, these findings were repeated for valence and arousal ratings of individual words, matching or outperforming previous AI models. Study 3 extended the prevalence and arousal analysis to multi-word expressions and showed promising results despite the lack of large-scale human benchmarks. These findings highlight the potential of LLMs for generating valuable psycholinguistic data related to multiword expressions. To help researchers with stimulus selection, we provide datasets with AI norms of concreteness, valence and arousal for 126,397 English single words and 63,680 multi-word expressions

cs.CL↗
arXiv2024

Spanish and LLM Benchmarks: is MMLU Lost in Translation?

The evaluation of Large Language Models (LLMs) is a key element in their continuous improvement process and many benchmarks have been developed to assess the performance of LLMs in different tasks and topics. As LLMs become adopted worldwide, evaluating them in languages other than English is increasingly important. However, most LLM benchmarks are simply translated using an automated tool and then run in the target language. This means that the results depend not only on the LLM performance in that language but also on the quality of the translation. In this paper, we consider the case of the well-known Massive Multitask Language Understanding (MMLU) benchmark. Selected categories of the benchmark are translated into Spanish using Azure Translator and ChatGPT4 and run on ChatGPT4. Next, the results are processed to identify the test items that produce different answers in Spanish and English. Those are then analyzed manually to understand if the automatic translation caused the change. The results show that a significant fraction of the failing items can be attributed to mistakes in the translation of the benchmark. These results make a strong case for improving benchmarks in languages other than English by at least revising the translations of the items and preferably by adapting the tests to the target language by experts.

cs.CL↗
arXiv2024

Dependability Evaluation of Stable Diffusion with Soft Errors on the Model Parameters

Stable Diffusion is a popular Transformer-based model for image generation from text; it applies an image information creator to the input text and the visual knowledge is added in a step-by-step fashion to create an image that corresponds to the input text. However, this diffusion process can be corrupted by errors from the underlying hardware, which are especially relevant for implementations at the nanoscales. In this paper, the dependability of Stable Diffusion is studied focusing on soft errors in the memory that stores the model parameters; specifically, errors are injected into some critical layers of the Transformer in different blocks of the image information creator, to evaluate their impact on model performance. The simulations results reveal several conclusions: 1) errors on the down blocks of the creator have a larger impact on the quality of the generated images than those on the up blocks, while the errors on middle block have negligible effect; 2) errors on the self-attention (SA) layers have larger impact on the results than those on the cross-attention (CA) layers; 3) for CA layers, errors on deeper levels result in a larger impact; 4) errors on blocks at the first levels tend to introduce noise in the image, and those on deep layers tend to introduce large colored blocks. These results provide an initial understanding of the impact of errors on Stable Diffusion.

eess.IV↗
arXiv2024

Establishing Vocabulary Tests as a Benchmark for Evaluating Large Language Models

Vocabulary tests, once a cornerstone of language modeling evaluation, have been largely overlooked in the current landscape of Large Language Models (LLMs) like Llama, Mistral, and GPT. While most LLM evaluation benchmarks focus on specific tasks or domain-specific knowledge, they often neglect the fundamental linguistic aspects of language understanding and production. In this paper, we advocate for the revival of vocabulary tests as a valuable tool for assessing LLM performance. We evaluate seven LLMs using two vocabulary test formats across two languages and uncover surprising gaps in their lexical knowledge. These findings shed light on the intricacies of LLM word representations, their learning mechanisms, and performance variations across models and languages. Moreover, the ability to automatically generate and perform vocabulary tests offers new opportunities to expand the approach and provide a more complete picture of LLMs' language skills.

cs.CL↗