arXiv subjects
Publications and source records attributed to R. S. Somerville.
We have mapped the AGN luminosity function and its evolution between z=1 and z=5 down to apparent magnitudes of $R<24$. Within the GEMS project we have analysed HST-ACS images of many AGN in the Extended Chandra Deep Field South, enabling us to assess the evolution of AGN host galaxy properties with cosmic time.
We investigate the constraints on models of supermassive black hole (SMBH) and quasar formation obtainable from two recent observational developments: the discovery of luminous quasars at z~6, and estimates of the local mass density of SMBHs. If ~90 per cent of this mass was accreted at redshifts z<3, as suggested by the observed quasar luminosity functions, these joint constraints pose a challenge for models, which must account for the observed luminous quasar population at z~6 within a very limited `mass budget'. We investigate a class of models based within the hierarchical structure formation scenario, in which major mergers lead to black hole formation and fuelling, and the resulting quasars shine at their Eddington-limited rate until their fuel is exhausted. We show that the simplest such model, in which a constant fraction of the gas within the halo is accreted in each major merger, cannot satisfy both constraints simultaneously. When this model is normalized to reproduce the number density of luminous quasars at z~6, the mass budget is grossly exceeded due to an overabundance of lower mass SMBHs. We explore a range of modifications to the simple model designed to overcome this problem. We show that both constraints can be satisfied if the gas accretion fraction scales as a function of the halo virial velocity. Similar scalings have been proposed in order to reproduce the local M-sigma relation. Successful models can also be constructed by restricting the formation of seed black holes to redshifts above z~11.5 or to haloes above a velocity threshold ~55 km/s, or assuming that only a fraction of major mergers result in formation of a seed SMBH. (abridged)
The LCIR Survey, using the Cambridge IR Survey Instrument (CIRSI), reaches H \~ 20-21 over ~1 deg^2. We present results for 744 arcmin^2 in which public UBVRI data exist. We compare optical-IR colours with predictions of a semi-analytic hierarchical model (SAM) and find reasonable agreement. We also determine photometric redshifts, finding a median z of z_m ~ 0.55. We compare N(z) of different spectral types with models, showing that the observations are inconsistent with simple PLE models while the SAM provides a reasonable fit to the total N(z) but underestimates the number of z ~ 1 red spectral types. We also present N(z) for samples of red objects (EROs). We find that EROs with R - H > 4 and H < 20.5 have z_m ~ 1; redder EROs have higher z_m. For 19 < H < 20, EROs with R - H > 4 comprise ~18% of the observed galaxy population while in the SAM they contribute only ~4%. We also determine the angular correlation function w(theta) for magnitude, colour, spectral type and photo-z selected samples and use the estimated N(z) to derive the spatial clustering xi(r). Parametrizing xi(r) by xi(r_c,z)=(r_c/r_*(z))^(-1.8) (r_c comoving), we find that r_*(z) increases by ~1.5-2 times from z = 0 to z ~ 1.2. We interpret this as a selection effect - the galaxies selected at z ~ 1.2 are intrinsically very luminous. When galaxies are selected by absolute magnitude we find no evidence for evolution in r_* over this z range. Extrapolated to z = 0, we find r_*(0) ~ 6.5 h^-1Mpc for red galaxies and r_*(0) ~ 2-4 h^-1Mpc for blue galaxies. We also find that while the angular clustering amplitude of EROs with R - H > 4 or I - H > 3 is up to four times that of the whole galaxy population, the spatial clustering length r_*(z=1) is ~7.5-10.5 h^-1Mpc which is only a factor of ~1.7 times r_* for non-EROs lying in a similar z and luminosity range.
(Abridged) The Las Campanas Infrared Survey, based on broad-band optical and near-infrared photometry, is designed to robustly identify a statistically significant and representative sample of evolved galaxies at redshifts z>1. We have completed an H-band imaging survey over 1.1 square degrees of sky in six separate fields. The average 5 sigma detection limit in a four arcsecond diameter aperture is H ~ 20. Here we describe the design of the survey, the observation strategies, data reduction techniques, and object identification procedures. We present sample near-infrared and optical photometric catalogs for objects identified in two survey fields. We perform object detection in all bandpasses and identify ~ 54,000 galaxies over 1,408 square arcminutes of sky in the two fields. Of these galaxies, ~ 14,000 are detected in the H-band and ~ 2,000 have the colors of evolved galaxies, I - H >3, at z > 1. We find that (1) the differential number counts N(m) for the H-band detected objects has a slope of 0.44 at H < 19 and 0.27 for H > 19. In addition, we find that (2) the differential number counts for the H detected red objects has a slope of 0.85 at H < 20 and 0.32 at H > 20, with a mean surface density ~ 3,000 degree^{-2} mag^{-1} at H=20. Finally, we find that (3) galaxies with red optical to near-IR colors (I-H > 3) constitute ~ 20% of the H detected galaxies at H ~ 21, but only 2% at H = 19. We show that red galaxies are strongly clustered, which results in a strong field to field variation in their surface density. Comparisons of observations and predictions based on various formation scenarios indicate that these red galaxies are consistent with mildly evolving early-type galaxies at z ~ 1, although with a significant amount of on-going star formation as indicated by the large scatter in their V-I colors.
We present results from the Las Campanas Infrared Survey, designed to identify a statistically significant sample of z>=1 galaxies using photometric redshift techniques. Here we summarize the design and strategies of the survey and present the first estimate of the galaxy luminosity function at z>=1 based on H-band selected galaxies identified in our survey. Results of number count studies and luminosity function measurements indicate that most early-type galaxies were already in place by z~1.2 with a modest space density evolution and a mild luminosity evolution over that expected from passive evolution.
(Abridged) We have identified a population of faint red galaxies from a 0.62 square degree region of the Las Campanas Infrared Survey whose properties are consistent with their being the progenitors of early-type galaxies. The optical and IR colors, number-magnitude relation and angular clustering together indicate modest evolution and increased star formation rates among the early-type field population at redshifts between one and two. The counts of red galaxies with $H$ magnitudes between 17 and 20 rise with a slope that is much steeper than that of the total H sample. The surface density of red galaxies drops from roughly 3000 per square degree at H = 20.5, I-H > 3 to ~ 20 per square degree at H = 20, I-H > 5. The V-I colors are approximately 1.5 magnitudes bluer on average than a pure old population and span a range of more than three magnitudes. The colors, and photometric redshifts derived from them, indicate that the red galaxies have redshift distributions adequately described by Gaussians with sigma_z ~ 0.2$ centered near redshift one, with the exception that galaxies having $V-I<1.6$ and $I-H>3$ are primarily in the 1.5 < z < 2 range. We find co-moving correlation lengths of 9-10 Mpc at z ~ 1, comparable to, or larger than, those found for early-type galaxies at lower redshifts. A simple photometric evolution model reproduces the counts of the red galaxies, with only a ~ 30% decline in the underlying space density of early-type galaxies at z ~ 1.2. We suggest on the basis of the colors, counts, and clustering that these red galaxies are the bulk of the progenitors of present day early-type galaxies.
Using semi-analytic models of galaxy formation set within the Cold Dark Matter (CDM) merging hierarchy, we investigate several scenarios for the nature of the high-redshift ($z \ga 2$) Lyman-break galaxies (LBGs). We consider a ``collisional starburst'' model in which bursts of star formation are triggered by galaxy-galaxy mergers, and find that a significant fraction of LBGs are predicted to be starbursts. This model reproduces the observed comoving number density of bright LBGs as a function of redshift and the observed luminosity function at $z\sim 3$ and $z\sim 4$, with a reasonable amount of dust extinction. Model galaxies at $z \sim 3$ have star formation rates, half-light radii, I-K colours, and internal velocity dispersions that are in good agreement with the data. Global quantities such as the star formation rate density and cold gas and metal content of the Universe as a function of redshift also agree well. Two ``quiescent'' models without starbursts are also investigated. In one, the star formation efficiency in galaxies remains constant with redshift, while in the other, it scales inversely with disc dynamical time, and thus increases rapidly with redshift. The first quiescent model is strongly ruled out as it does not produce enough high redshift galaxies once realistic dust extinction is accounted for. The second quiescent model fits marginally, but underproduces cold gas and very bright galaxies at high redshift. A general conclusion is that star formation at high redshift must be more efficient than locally. The collisional starburst model appears to accomplish this naturally without violating other observational constraints.
We study the biasing relation between dark-matter halos or galaxies and the underlying mass distribution, using cosmological $N$-body simulations in which galaxies are modelled via semi-analytic recipes. The nonlinear, stochastic biasing is quantified in terms of the mean biasing function and the scatter about it as a function of time, scale and object properties. The biasing of galaxies and halos shows a general similarity and a characteristic shape, with no galaxies in deep voids and a steep slope in moderately underdense regions. At $\sim 8\hmpc$, the nonlinearity is typically $\lsim 10$ percent and the stochasticity is a few tens of percent, corresponding to $\sim 30$ percent variations in the cosmological parameter $β=Ω^{0.6}/b$. Biasing depends weakly on halo mass, galaxy luminosity, and scale. The time evolution is rapid, with the mean biasing larger by a factor of a few at $z\sim 3$ compared to $z=0$, and with a minimum for the nonlinearity and stochasticity at an intermediate redshift. Biasing today is a weak function of the cosmological model, reflecting the weak dependence on the power-spectrum shape, but the time evolution is more cosmology-dependent, relecting the effect of the growth rate. We provide predictions for the relative biasing of galaxies of different type and color, to be compared with upcoming large redshift surveys. Analytic models in which the number of objects is conserved underestimate the evolution of biasing, while models that explicitly account for merging provide a good description of the biasing of halos and its evolution, suggesting that merging is a crucial element in the evolution of biasing.
We present V, V-I color-magnitude diagrams (CMDs) for three old star clusters in the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC): NGC 1466, NGC 2257 and Hodge 11. Our data extend about 3 magnitudes below the main-sequence turnoff, allowing us to determine accurate relative ages and the blue straggler frequencies. Based on a differential comparison of the CMDs, any age difference between the three LMC clusters is less than 1.5 Gyr. Comparing their CMDs to those of M 92 and M 3, the LMC clusters, unless their published metallicities are significantly in error, are the same age as the old Galactic globulars. The similar ages to Galactic globulars are shown to be consistent with hierarchial clustering models of galaxy formation. The blue straggler frequencies are also similar to those of Galactic globular clusters. We derive a true distance modulus to the LMC of (m-M)=18.46 +/- 0.09 (assuming (m-M)=14.61 for M 92) using these three LMC clusters.
Using high resolution N-body simulations with hydrodynamics and star formation, we investigate interactions and the resulting starbursts in galaxies with properties typical of $z\sim 3$. We apply spectral population models to produce mock-HST images, and discuss the observed magnitude, color, and morphological appearance of our simulated galaxies in both the rest-UV and rest-visual bands.
Gamma rays of ~TeV energies from distant sources suffer attenuation due to pair production off of ~1 micron EBL photons. We may exploit this process in order to indirectly measure the EBL and constrain models of galaxy formation. Here, using semi-analytic models of galaxy formation, we examine how gamma ray absorption may be used as an indirect probe of the stellar initial mass function (IMF), although there is a degeneracy with dust modeling. We point out that with the new generation of gamma ray telescopes including STACEE, MAGIC, HESS, VERITAS, and Milagro, we should soon possess a wealth of new data and a new method for probing the nature of the IMF.