arXiv subjects

Ravit Helled

Publications and source records attributed to Ravit Helled.

At least 37 records · Page 2Linked to original sources

arXiv2026

GEMS JWST: HATS-75 b -- A giant planet with a sub-solar metallicity atmosphere orbiting an M-dwarf

HATS-75 b is one of the recently discovered Giant Exoplanets orbiting M-dwarf Stars (GEMS) with a transmission spectrum shaped by both its atmosphere and the active stellar surface it transits. As part of a JWST program studying 7 GEMS, we observed three transits of HATS-75 b with the NIRSpec PRISM instrument (0.6-5.3 um). The planet's spectra exhibit a slightly larger transit depth at shorter wavelengths, indicative of hazes or stellar contamination due to stellar heterogeneities outside the transit chord, i.e., the transit light source (TLS) effect. While both a hazy atmospheric model or TLS model can replicate the transmission spectrum, independent evidence (.e.g, stellar rotation, spot-crossing events) favors a model that includes contamination from unocculted starspots and faculae. Within this stellar heterogeneity / TLS-based framework, atmospheric retrievals yield remarkably low atmospheric metallicity (log[M/H]=-1.74^{+0.92}_{-0.76}) and super-solar carbon-to-oxygen (C/O=1.04^{+0.40}_{-0.09}), which paired with a best-fit interior model with bulk metallicity of Z_p=0.20+/-0.04, implies poor vertical mixing within the planet. Retrievals also detect robust absorption signatures of CH4, CO, and CO2. We obtain only an upper limit for H2O, consistent with its atmospheric spectral features being masked by stellar contamination. These results underscore the importance of accounting for stellar heterogeneity when interpreting exoplanet transmission spectra and highlight HATS-75 b as a significant asset to our understanding of giant exoplanets around M-dwarfs with JWST.

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arXiv2026

GEMS JWST: A sub-Solar metallicity atmosphere for giant planet TOI-5293Ab orbiting a rapidly changing M-dwarf

The growing sample of Giant Exoplanets around M-dwarf Stars (GEMS) helps probe the extremes of giant planet formation. Comparing the properties of this sample with their FGK counterparts can help us understand how planet formation and migration depend on stellar mass. We initiated a large Cycle 2 JWST transmission spectroscopy survey of seven GEMS. Here we present the atmospheric characterization using two JWST transits of TOI-5293Ab, a 0.5 $M_J$ planet orbiting an early M-dwarf with a period of $\sim$ 3 days. The two NIRSpec/PRISM transits indicate the planet is eclipsing a rapidly changing (heterogeneous) stellar photosphere. We see that Visit 1 had heterogeneity crossings across the entire transit chord, rendering inferences from it to be unreliable. The Visit 1 spectrum exhibits a downward slope ${<1}$ $μ$m suggestive of stellar contamination from faculae. In contrast, for Visit 2 we are able to model the heterogeneity crossings and obtain a transmission spectrum free from stellar contamination. We therefore limit our conclusions to a detailed analysis of Visit 2, and using Bayesian free chemistry retrievals, we find a low atmospheric metallicity ($\log [\mathrm{M/H}] = -1.03^{+0.53}_{-0.44}$ $\times$ Solar) and slightly super-solar C/O ratio ($1.23^{+2.94}_{-0.75}$). The retrievals yield Bayes factors that indicate strong evidence for \ce{CH4} as well as low significance detections of \ce{CO2}, \ce{H2O}, \ce{NH3}. Finally, using thermal evolution models we find that the radius of TOI-5293Ab is inflated above theoretical expectations ($\sim$ 1.07 $R_J$), despite it having an temperature of $\sim$ 700 K, and hence we were unable to constrain its bulk composition.

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arXiv2026

The Evolution and Internal Structure of Neptunes and Sub-Neptunes: The importance of thermal conductivity in non-convective regions

Neptunes and sub-Neptunes are typically modeled under the assumption that the interior is adiabatic and consists of distinct layers. However, formation models indicate that composition gradients can exist. Such composition gradients can significantly affect the planetary thermal evolution. In non-convective layers, the heat transport is governed by multiple processes. We investigate how the evolution and internal structure of Neptunes and sub-Neptunes is affected when considering non-convective layers and the sensitivity of the results on the assumed thermal conductivity. Methods. We simulate the planetary evolution by considering thermal transport via radiation, electrons, and vibrational conductivity. We consider planetary masses of 5, 10 and 15 ME, three different initial energy budgets, and two different primordial composition profiles. We find that the assumed conductivity significantly affects the planetary thermal evolution. We show that the commonly used conductivity assumption is inappropriate for modeling this planetary type. Furthermore, we find that the inferred radii deviate by ~20% depending on the assumed conductivity. The uncertainty on the primordial entropy in planets with non-convective layers leads to a difference of ~25% in the radii. This shows that the theoretical uncertainties are significantly larger than the observed ones, and emphasizes the importance of these parameters. We conclude that the characterization and modeling of intermediate-mass gaseous planets strongly depend on the modeling approach and the model assumptions. We demonstrate that the existence of composition gradients significantly affects the inferred radius. We suggest that more data on thermal conductivities, particularly for partially ionized material and mixtures, as well as better constraints on the primordial thermal state of such planets are necessary.

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arXiv2026

GEMS JWST: Transmission spectroscopy of TOI-5205b reveals significant stellar contamination and a metal-poor atmosphere

Recent discoveries of transiting giant exoplanets ($R_p\gtrsim8\mathrm{~R_\oplus}$) around M dwarfs (GEMS) present an opportunity to investigate their atmospheric compositions and explore how such massive planets form around low-mass stars contrary to the prediction from formation models. We present the first transmission spectra of TOI-5205b, a short-period ($P=1.63~\mathrm{days}$) Jupiter-like planet ($M_p=1.08~\mathrm{M_J}$ and $R_p=0.94~\mathrm{R_J}$) orbiting an M4 dwarf ($M_\star=0.392~\mathrm{M_\odot}$, $R_\star=0.394~\mathrm{R_\odot}$). We obtained three transits using the PRISM mode of the JWST Near Infrared Spectrograph (NIRSpec) spanning $0.6-5.3$ um. The data reveal significant stellar contamination that is evident in the light curves as spot-crossing events and in the transmission spectra as a larger transit depth at bluer wavelengths. Atmospheric retrievals demonstrate that stellar contamination from unocculted starspots and faculae is the dominant component of the transmission spectrum at wavelengths $λ\lesssim3.0$ um, reducing the sensitivity to the presence of clouds or hazes in our models and preventing detection of $\mathrm{H_2O}$. The wavelength coverage enabled a robust detection of $\mathrm{CH_4}$ and $\mathrm{H_2S}$, which have detectable molecular features between $3.0-5.0$ um. For both clear or cloudy atmospheres, Bayesian retrievals consistently favored an atmosphere with sub-solar metallicity ($3σ$ upper limit of $\log\mathrm{[M/H]}\lesssim-1.24$) and super-solar C/O ratio ($3σ$ lower limit of $\log\mathrm{[C/O]}\gtrsim0.09$), although this may partly be driven by the non-detection of water due to stellar contamination. Planetary interior models predict a bulk metallicity of 10--20\%, which is larger than the atmospheric metallicity and suggests that the interior of TOI-5205b is decoupled from its atmosphere.

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arXiv2026

Densities of small planets around the M dwarfs TOI-4336 A and TOI-4342 with ESPRESSO: Three sub-Neptunes, one super-Earth, and a Neptune-mass candidate

We present the characterization of two planetary systems orbiting the M dwarfs TOI-4336 A (M3.5V) and TOI-4342 (M0V), each hosting two transiting planets previously validated with TESS and ground-based observations. We refined the photometry of the TOI-4342 system using TESS and LCOGT data, and characterized the host stars with NIRPS and ESPRESSO spectroscopy. High-precision ESPRESSO radial velocities allowed us to constrain the planetary masses and investigate their potential compositions. The TOI-4336 A system is composed of a sub-Neptune with a period of 16.34 days, a radius of $2.14 \pm 0.08$ Re, and a mass of $3.33 \pm 0.36$ Me, along with an inner super-Earth on a 7.59-day orbit with a radius of $1.25 \pm 0.07$ Re and a mass of $1.55 \pm 0.13$ Me. The TOI-4342 system hosts two sub-Neptunes of similar sizes ($2.33 \pm 0.09$ Re and $2.35 \pm 0.09$ Re), with periods of 5.54 and 10.69 days. Their masses are measured to be $7.3 \pm 1.3$ Me and $4.8 \pm 1.4$ Me, respectively. The RVs also reveal a planet candidate around TOI-4342, likely non-transiting, with a period of 47.5 days and a minimum mass of $17.8 \pm 3.0$ Me. With precise radii and masses, we derived bulk densities and explored possible compositions. The TOI-4336 A sub-Neptune and super-Earth have densities of $1.87 \pm 0.30$ and $4.35 \pm 0.79$ g cm$^{-3}$, while the two similar-sized sub-Neptunes in TOI-4342 show distinct densities of $3.18 \pm 0.67$ and $2.01 \pm 0.63$ g cm$^{-3}$. All four planets are excellent targets for future atmospheric characterization with JWST, and their multi-planet nature makes them especially interesting for comparative planetology. Notably, TOI-4336 A b stands out as one of the best-known targets in its size and temperature regime, with a TSM of 138, comparable to benchmark planets such as K2-18 b and LHS 1140 b.

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arXiv2026

How Internal Structure Shapes the Metallicity of Giant Exoplanets

The composition and internal structure of gas giant exoplanets encode key information about their formation and evolution. We investigate how different assumed interior structures affect the inferred bulk metallicity and its correlation with planetary mass. For a sample of 44 giant exoplanets (0.12-5.98 MJ), we computed evolutionary models with CEPAM and retrieved their bulk metallicities under three structural hypotheses: core+envelope (CE), dilute core (DC), and fully mixed (FM). Across all structures, we recover a significant positive correlation between total heavy-element mass (MZ) and planetary mass (M), and a negative correlation between bulk metallicity (Z) and M (also for Z/Zstar vs M). Dilute core structures yield metallicities comparable to CE models, regardless of the assumed extent of the composition gradient. Increasing atmospheric metallicity augments the inferred bulk metallicity, as enhanced opacities slow planetary cooling. Non-adiabatic DC models can further increase the retrieved metallicity by up to 35 percent. We find that the mass-metallicity anti-correlation is primarily driven by low-mass, metal-rich planets (M < 0.2 MJ), and that massive planets (greater than about 1 MJ) can exhibit unexpectedly high metallicities (Z approximately 0.1-0.3). Improved constraints on convective mixing, combined with upcoming accurate measurements of planetary masses, radii, and atmospheric compositions from missions such as PLATO and Ariel, will provide further constraints on interior structure and formation models of gas giant planets.

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arXiv2025

Towards an agnostic algorithm for sampling empirical structure models: The case of Uranus and Neptune

We present an algorithm to efficiently sample the full space of planetary interior density profiles. Our approach uses as few assumptions as possible to pursue an agnostic algorithm. The algorithm avoids the common Markov Chain Monte Carlo method and instead uses an optimisation-based gradient-descent approach designed for computational efficiency. In this work, we use Uranus and Neptune as test cases and obtain empirical models that provide density and pressure profiles consistent with the observed physical properties (total mass, radius, and gravitational moments). We compare our findings to other work and find that while other studies are generally in line with our findings, they do not cover the entire space of solutions faithfully. Furthermore, we present guidance for modellers that construct Uranus or Neptune interior models with a fixed number of layers. We provide a statistical relation between the steepness classifying a density discontinuity and the resulting number of discontinuities to be expected. For example, if one classifies a discontinuity as a density gradient larger than 0.02 kg$\,$m$^{-4}$, then most solutions should have at most one such discontinuity. Finally, we find that discontinuities, if present, are concentrated around a planetary normalised radius of 0.65 for Uranus and 0.7 for Neptune. Our algorithm to efficiently and faithfully investigate the full space of possible interior density profiles can be used to study all planetary objects with gravitational field data.

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arXiv2025

Further constraints on Jupiter's primordial structure

The primordial structure of Jupiter remains uncertain, yet it holds vital clues on the planet's formation and early evolution. Recent work used dynamical constraints from Jupiter's inner moons to determine its primordial state, thereby providing a novel, formation-era anchor point for interior modeling. Building on this approach, we combine these dynamical constraints with thermal evolution simulations to investigate which primordial structures are consistent with present-day Jupiter. We present 4,250 evolutionary models of the planetary structure, including compositional mixing and helium phase separation, spanning a broad range of initial entropies and composition profiles. We find that Jupiter's present-day structure is best explained by a warm ($4.98_{-2.57}^{+3.00}\, \mathrm{k_B\, m_u^{-1}}$), metal-rich dilute core inherited from formation. To simultaneously satisfy constraints on Jupiter's primordial spin, however, its envelope must have been significantly warmer ($9.32_{-0.58}^{+0.48}\, \mathrm{k_B\, m_u^{-1}}$) at the time of disk dispersal. We determine Jupiter's primordial radius to be $1.89_{-0.49}^{+0.40}\, \mathrm{R_J}$. These results provide new constraints on Jupiter's formation, suggesting that most heavy elements were accreted early during runaway gas accretion, and placing bounds on the energy dissipated during the accretion shock.

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arXiv2025

Giant Planet Evolution with MESA

The evolution of gaseous planets is a complex process influenced by various physical parameters and processes. In this study, we present critical modifications to the Modules for Experiments in Stellar Astrophysics (MESA) code to enhance its applicability to giant planet modelling. We introduce an equation of state specifically tailored for materials at planetary conditions. The equation of state considers the thermodynamic properties of hydrogen-helium mixtures and heavy elements, improving the accuracy of internal structure calculations. We also present modifications to the radiative opacity to allow the modelling of grains, clouds and opacity windows. Furthermore, we refine the treatment of convective mixing processes in MESA to better replicate convective mixing with the presence of composition gradients. Finally, we add a treatment for helium rain and settling. These modifications aim to enhance the predictive capabilities of MESA for giant planet evolution and are publicly available. We hope that these improvements will lead to a deeper understanding of giant planet evolution in the solar system and beyond.

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arXiv2025

Icy or rocky? Convective or stable? New interior models of Uranus and Neptune

We present a new framework for constructing agnostic and yet physical models for planetary interiors and apply it to Uranus and Neptune. Unlike previous research that either impose rigid assumptions or rely on simplified empirical profiles, our approach bridges both paradigms. Starting from randomly generated density profiles, we applied an iterative algorithm that converges towards models that simultaneously satisfy hydrostatic equilibrium, match the observed gravitational moments, and remain thermodynamically and compositionally consistent. The inferred interior models for Uranus and Neptune span a wide range of possible interior structures, in particular encompassing both water-dominated and rock-dominated configurations (rock-to-water mass ratios between 0.04-3.92 for Uranus and 0.20-1.78 for Neptune). All models contain convective regions with ionic water and have temperature-pressure profiles that remain above the demixing curves for hydrogen-helium-water mixtures. This offers both a plausible explanation for the observed non-dipolar magnetic fields and indicates that no hydrogen-helium-water demixing occurs. We find a higher H-He mass fraction in the outermost convection zones for Uranus (0.62-0.73) compared to Neptune (0.25-0.49) and that Uranus' magnetic field is likely generated deeper in the interior compared to Neptune. We infer upper limits of 0.69-0.74 (Uranus) versus 0.78-0.92 (Neptune) for the outer edges of the dynamo regions in units of normalised radii. Overall, our findings challenge the conventional classification of Uranus and Neptune as 'ice giants' and underscore the need for improved observational data or formation constraints to break compositional degeneracy.

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arXiv2025

The possibility of a giant impact on Venus

Giant impacts were common in the early evolution of the Solar System, and it is possible that Venus also experienced an impact. A giant impact on Venus could have affected its rotation rate and possibly its thermal evolution. In this work, we explore a range of possible impacts using smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH). We consider the final major collision, assuming that differentiation already occurred and that Venus consists of an iron core (30% of Venus' mass) and a forsterite mantle (70% of Venus' mass). We use differentiated impactors with masses ranging from 0.01 to 0.1 Earth masses, impact velocities between 10 and 15 km/s, various impact geometries (head-on and oblique), different primordial thermal profiles, and a range of pre-impact rotation rates of Venus. We analyse the post-impact rotation periods and debris disc masses to identify scenarios that can reproduce Venus' present-day characteristics. Our findings show that a wide range of impact scenarios are consistent with Venus' current rotation. These include head-on collisions on a non-rotating Venus and oblique, hit-and-run impacts by Mars-sized bodies on a rotating Venus. Importantly, collisions that match Venus' present-day rotation rate typically produce minimal debris discs residing within Venus' synchronous orbit. This suggests that the material would likely reaccrete onto the planet, preventing the formation of long-lasting satellites - consistent with Venus' lack of a moon. We conclude that a giant impact can be consistent with both Venus' unusual rotation and lack of a moon, potentially setting the stage for its subsequent thermal evolution.

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arXiv2025

Unraveling the origin of giant exoplanets: Observational implications of convective mixing

The connection between the atmospheric composition of giant planets and their origin remains elusive. In this study, we explore how convective mixing can link the primordial planetary state to its atmospheric composition. We simulate the long-term evolution of gas giants with masses between 0.3 and 3 Jupiter masses, considering various composition profiles and primordial entropies (assuming no entropy-mass dependence). Our results show that when convective mixing is considered, the atmospheric metallicity increases with time and that this time evolution encodes information about the primordial planetary structure. Additionally, the degree of compositional mixing affects the planetary radius, altering its evolution in a measurable way. By applying mock observations, we demonstrate that combining radius and atmospheric composition can help to constrain the planetary formation history. Young systems emerge as prime targets for such characterization, with lower-mass gas giants (approaching Saturn's mass) being particularly susceptible to mixing-induced changes. Our findings highlight convective mixing as a key mechanism for probing the primordial state of giant planets, offering new constraints on formation models and demonstrating that the conditions inside giant planets shortly after their formation are not necessarily erased over billions of years and can leave a lasting imprint on their evolution.

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arXiv2025

Convective Mixing in Gas Giant Planets with Primordial Composition Gradients

Linking atmospheric measurements to the bulk planetary composition and ultimately the planetary origin is a key objective in planetary science. In this work, we identify the cases in which the atmospheric composition represents the bulk composition. We simulate the evolution of giant planets considering a wide range of planetary masses ($0.3-2~M_{\mathrm{J}}$), initial entropies ($8-11~k_{\mathrm{B}} m_\mathrm{u}^{-1}$), and primordial heavy-element profiles. We find that convective mixing is most efficient at early times (ages $\lesssim 10^7$ yr) and that primordial composition gradients can be eroded. In several cases, however, the atmospheric composition can differ widely from the planetary bulk composition, with the exact outcome depending on the details. We show that the efficiency of convection is primarily controlled by the underlying entropy profile: For low primordial entropies of $8-9~k_\mathrm{B} m_\mathrm{u}^{-1}$, convective mixing can be inhibited and composition gradients can persist over billions of years. The scaling of mixing efficiency with mass is governed by the primordial entropy. For the same primordial entropy, low-mass planets mix more efficiently than high-mass planets. If the primordial internal entropy would increase with mass, however, this trend could reverse. We also present a new analytical model that predicts convective mixing under the existence of composition (and entropy) gradients. Our results emphasize the complexity in the interpretation of atmospheric abundance measurements and show the great need to better understand the planetary formation process as it plays a key role in determining the planetary evolution and final structure.

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arXiv2025

A Denser Hydrogen Inferred from First-Principles Simulations Challenges Jupiter's Interior Models

First-principle modeling of dense hydrogen is crucial in materials and planetary sciences. Despite its apparent simplicity, predicting the ionic and electronic structure of hydrogen is a formidable challenge, and it is connected with the insulator-to-metal transition, a century-old problem in condensed matter. Accurate simulations of liquid hydrogen are also essential for modeling gas giant planets. Here we perform an exhaustive study of the equation of state of hydrogen using Density Functional Theory and quantum Monte Carlo simulations. We find that the pressure predicted by Density Functional Theory may vary qualitatively when using different functionals. The predictive power of first-principle simulations is restored by validating each functional against higher-level wavefunction theories, represented by computationally intensive variational and diffusion Monte Carlo calculations. Our simulations provide evidence that hydrogen is denser at planetary conditions, compared to currently used equations of state. For Jupiter, this implies a lower bulk metallicity (i.e., a smaller mass of heavy elements). Our results further amplify the inconsistency between Jupiter's atmospheric metallicity measured by the Galileo probe and the envelope metallicity inferred from interior models.

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arXiv2025

The Possibility of Hydrogen-Water Demixing in Uranus, Neptune, K2-18b and TOI-270d

The internal structures of Uranus and Neptune remain unknown. In addition, sub-Neptunes are now thought to be the most common type of exoplanets. Understanding the physical processes that govern the interiors of such planets is therefore essential. Phase separation between hydrogen and water may occur in cold, water-rich intermediate-mass planets. We assess whether it could occur in Uranus, Neptune, K2-18\,b and TOI-270\,d, and investigate its effect on the planetary evolution and inferred internal structure. We couple planetary evolution models with recent \textit{ab initio} calculations of the hydrogen-water phase diagram, allowing for temperature shifts to account for uncertainties in miscibility gaps. We find that demixing may occur and could lead to a complete depletion of water in the outermost regions of Uranus and Neptune. Temperature offsets of up to 1100~K lead to a depleted region comprising as much as 16\% of the planet's mass, and an increase in planetary radius by nearly 20\%. For K2-18\,b, our models suggest that hydrogen-water demixing is ongoing and may explain the absence of water features in its JWST spectrum. A temperature offset of 500~K is required to get a complete depletion of water in the atmosphere of K2-18\,b. TOI-270\,d may also have experienced hydrogen-water demixing. When applying a similar temperature offset on the phase diagram as for K2-18\,b, we find a partial depletion of water in the atmosphere of TOI-270\,d, consistent with JWST's detection of water. Hydrogen-water immiscibility may play a key role in shaping the structure and evolution of both Solar System giant planets like Uranus and Neptune, and cold/temperate exoplanets such as K2-18\,b and TOI-270\,d. Accounting for such internal processes is crucial to accurately interpret atmospheric observations from current (e.g., JWST) and upcoming (e.g., ARIEL) missions.

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arXiv2025

Giant planet formation via pebble accretion across different stellar masses

The occurrence rate of cold Jupiters was found to depend on stellar mass. The formation environment in the protoplanetary disks regulates core formation and the subsequent gas accretion. In this study, we simulate giant planet formation via pebble accretion accounting for various stellar masses, core formation times, disk turbulent viscosities, and grain opacities. We use a self-consistent formation model that calculates the solid accretion rate and gas accretion rate of growing protoplanets. We investigate how the planetary formation, in particular, the contraction of the envelope, and the formation timescale change under different conditions. We find that to reproduce the observed occurrence rate of cold Jupiters, giant planets must undergo slow envelope contraction after they reach pebble isolation, which lasts for several Myrs. Such a slow contraction phase can be achieved when the grain opacity is assumed to be as high as that of the interstellar medium (ISM). If the grain opacity is smaller than the ISM opacity by a factor of ten or more, the growing protoplanets reach crossover mass within 3 Myrs and form too many cold Jupiters around stars of >0.4Msun. Protoplanets around low-mass stars <0.4Msun take >10 Myrs to reach crossover mass also with low grain opacity. If the grain opacity in the planetary envelope is much lower than that of ISM, other mechanisms, such as atmospheric recycling or planetesimal accretion, is required for cold Jupiter formation. We next explore how the deposition of the accreted heavy elements to the planetary envelope changes the formation timescale. Our model suggests that the formation timescale could be longer due to heavy-element enrichment, resulting from the lower core mass at pebble isolation. We conclude that the details of the formation processes have a significant effect on the planetary growth and therefore, the formation of gaseous planets.

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arXiv2025

The TOI-1117 Multi-planetary System: 3 sub-Neptunes, 1 in both the Neptunian Desert and Radius Valley

We present the discovery of three sub-Neptune planets around TOI-1117, a Sun-like star with mass $0.97\pm0.02M_{\odot}$, radius $1.05\pm0.03R_{\odot}$, age $4.42\pm1.50$ Gyr and effective temperature $5635\pm62$ K. Light curves from TESS and LCOGT show a transiting sub-Neptune with a $2.23$ day period, mass $M_b=8.90_{-0.96}^{+0.95}M_{\oplus}$ and radius $R_b=2.46_{-0.12}^{+0.13}R_{\oplus}$. This is a rare 'hot Neptune' that falls within the parameter spaces known as the 'Neptunian Desert' and the 'Radius Valley'. Two more planetary signals are detected in HARPS radial velocities, revealing two non-transiting planets with minimum masses $M_c=7.46_{-1.62}^{+1.43}M_{\oplus}$ and $M_d=9.06_{-1.78}^{+2.07}M_{\oplus}$, and periods of $4.579\pm0.004$ and $8.67\pm0.01$ days. The eccentricities were poorly constrained by the HARPS data, with upper limits $e_b=0.11$, $e_c=0.29$, and $e_d=0.24$. However, dynamical simulations of the TOI-1117 system, suggest that the orbits must be nearly circular to be stable. The simulations also show that TOI-1117b and c are likely to be in a near 2:1 resonance. The multi-planet nature of TOI-1117 makes it a more complex case for formation theories of the Neptunian Desert and Radius Valley, as current theories such as high-eccentricity migration are too turbulent to produce a stable, non-eccentric, multi-planet system. Moreover, analysis of TOI-1117b's photoevaporation history found rocky core and H/He atmosphere models to be inconsistent with observations, whilst water-rich scenarios were favoured.

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arXiv2025

On the origin of Jupiter's fuzzy core: constraints from N-body, impact and evolution simulations

It has been suggested that Jupiter's fuzzy core could be a result of a giant impact. Here, we investigate the expected impact conditions from N-body simulations. We then use state-of-the-art SPH simulations to investigate the results of impacts with different conditions including various impactor masses and composition, different formation stages in Jupiter's growth, and different resolutions. We next simulate the long-term thermal evolution of Jupiter post-impact. We find that 3D N-body simulations predict rather oblique impacts, and that head-on collisions are rare. Moreover, our results show that even under a head-on collision, Jupiter's fuzzy core cannot be formed. We next simulated Jupiter's thermal evolution and showed that unless post-impact temperatures are extremely low, a giant impact would not lead to an extended dilute core as inferred by interior models. We conclude that Jupiter's fuzzy core is not caused by an impact and is likely to be an outcome of its formation process.

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