arXiv subjects

Richard G. Forbes

Publications and source records attributed to Richard G. Forbes.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

arXiv2026

Summary overview of present state of basic electrostatic field electron emission theory

This technical note provides a high-level overview of the present state of basic field electron emission (FE) theory, as suitable for use in the context of technological applications of FE theory. At present there is much theoretical confusion in FE literature, and a partial breakdown of the peer review system. Even in sensitive technological contexts, many papers have stated and used out-of-date theory that makes current-density predictions that are several hundred times less than those of modern FE theory. A primary aim of this note is to help reduce the confusion and error in future published FE literature. It is not intended as a detailed review of FE theory.

cond-mat.mes-hall↗

arXiv2026

Methods for characterization of atomic-scale field emission point-electron-source

Field emission (FE) electron sources are made close to atomic-scale to reach the highest spatial resolution as well as stable emission for electron microscopy, electron beam inspection and lithography. At present, no single agreed method exists of using FE current-voltage data to extract the apparent emission area, which is needed for predicting some beam properties. The 1956 theory of Murphy and Good (MG) is better physics than the 1920s theory of Fowler and Nordheim (FN) and colleagues, but many researchers use simplified FN theory to analyse experimental data. The present paper reports an experimental method of finding apparent emission area, based on using field ion and field electron microscopes (FIM-FEM). The discrepancy of emission area between the FIM-FEM method and MG-based analysis is a factor of 7.4, while that with simplified FN-based analysis is about 25, confirming MG theory is better for FE data analysis. The result allows deduction of key indicators, including source energy spread, reduced brightness and emission efficiency. A downloadable program is made available to help analysis. Our work provides a new experimental method of characterizing FE electron sources, especially the atomic-scale cold cathode, for which existing plot-based data-analysis methods are not suitable.

quant-ph↗

arXiv2026

Frontiers of atom probe tomography physics, data processing, and analysis

Atom probe tomography (APT) fills a crucial need in the characterization workflow of materials by its ability to inform the 3D chemical microstructure at the nanoscale. As with any characterization techniques, APT has strengths and limitations that inform the interpretation of the data. Therefore, a challenge for the materials characterization community, and the APT community in particular, is the need to establish repeatable and reproducible workflows around the APT data acquisition, reconstruction, analysis, and sharing, in order to inform interpretation. Data interpretation also requires the continued development of our understanding of the physical processes responsible for field evaporation. We review recent developments in the experimental analysis of field evaporation and in the modeling of field evaporation leading to new understanding of common artifacts observed in reconstructed data. We then discuss current challenges with data analysis, translation of results, and data interpretation in the absence of community-agreed standards, and therefore, the crucial need for standardization at every stage of APT research, from data collection all the way to data reporting. This perspective is a summary of the invited presentations and discussions that took place during a workshop (August 4-5, 2024, Alexandria, Virginia, USA).

cond-mat.mtrl-sci↗

arXiv2025

Field emission tunnelling as a window onto fundamental issues in quantum mechanics

Field electron emission (FE) and electrostatic field ionization (ESFI) are quantum-mechanical tunnelling processes that provide basic theory for important technologies. However, the basic theories of FE and ESF1 are not yet completely understood. This paper attempts to identify related fundamental quantum mechanical issues, problems and relevances. The following topics have been identified as deserving closer investigation or discussion. (a) The implication that if a "real electron" cannot have negative kinetic energy, then this necessarily implies that a "real electron" is a distributed object rather than a point object. (b) The implication that the language we use to discuss quantum mechanics needs to be changed in order to avoid referring to the "position of a (point) electron". (c) The idea that "quantum mathematics" (i.e., the mathematics of quantum mechanics) has different utilisations, namely the "matter distribution" and "pathway choice" utilisations, with "measurement" being observed pathway choice. (d) Difficulties with the present formulations of the uncertainty principle and wave-particle duality. (e) Fundamental difficulties in the exact calculation of exchange-and-correlation effects in both FE and ESFI theory. (f) Conceptual problems associated with "seeing electrons" in the field electron (emission) microscope. (g) Field emission tunnelling and the arrow of time. (h) The choice between tunnelling-integral and overlap-integral formulations of tunnelling theory, and the apparent incompleteness of both types of formulation.

quant-ph↗

arXiv2024

Towards establishing best practice in the analysis of hydrogen and deuterium by atom probe tomography

As hydrogen is touted as a key player in the decarbonization of modern society, it is critical to enable quantitative H analysis at high spatial resolution, if possible at the atomic scale. Indeed, H has a known deleterious impact on the mechanical properties (strength, ductility, toughness) of most materials that can hinder their use as part of the infrastructure of a hydrogen-based economy. Enabling H mapping, including local hydrogen concentration analyses at specific microstructural features, is essential for understanding the multiple ways that H affect the properties of materials, including for instance embrittlement mechanisms and their synergies, but also spatial mapping and quantification of hydrogen isotopes is essential to accurately predict tritium inventory of future fusion power plants, ensuring their safe and efficient operation for example. Atom probe tomography (APT) has the intrinsic capabilities for detecting hydrogen (H), and deuterium (D), and in principle the capacity for performing quantitative mapping of H within a material's microstructure. Yet the accuracy and precision of H analysis by APT remain affected by the influence of residual hydrogen from the ultra-high vacuum chamber that can obscure the signal of H from within the material, along with a complex field evaporation behavior. The present article reports the essence of discussions at a focused workshop held at the Max-Planck Institute for Sustainable Materials in April 2024. The workshop was organized to pave the way to establishing best practices in reporting APT data for the analysis of H. We first summarize the key aspects of the intricacies of H analysis by APT and propose a path for better reporting of the relevant data to support interpretation of APT-based H analysis in materials.

cond-mat.mtrl-sci↗

arXiv2023

Progress on the journey to put field electron emission onto a better scientific basis

This paper forms part of a long-term project to put field electron emission (FE) onto a better scientific basis, by seeking reliable quantitative agreement between theory and experiment, especially as regards emission-current values. The main paper aims are: (1) to respond to remarks made in recent papers; (2) to restate the thinking behind our 2022 methodology for choosing between different FE models using experiments; (3) to assess progress; and (4) to make further suggestions about improved approaches.

physics.app-ph↗

arXiv2023

Field emission: applying the "magic emitter" validity test to a recent paper, and related research-literature integrity issues

This work concerns studies of field electron emission (FE) from large area emitters. It discusses--and where possible corrects--several literature weaknesses related to the analysis of experimental current-voltage data and related emitter characterization, using a recent paper in Applied Surface Science to exemplify these weaknesses. One weakness, not detected in the published paper, is that current-density experiments and related theoretical predictions there differ by a large factor, in this case of order 10^(16). The work also shows that a recently introduced validity test--the "magic emitter" test--can be used, at the immediate-pre-submission or review stages, to help uncover scientific problems. More generally, in the literature of FE from large area emitters over the last 15 years or so, there appear to be many papers (perhaps hundreds of papers) with some or all of the weaknesses discussed. The scientific integrity of this research area, and of the related peer review processes, appear to be significantly broken, and attempts to correct the situation by the normal processes of science have had limited effect. There seems a growing case for independent wider investigation into research integrity issues of this general kind, and possibly for later action by Governments.

cond-mat.mes-hall↗

arXiv2023

Field emitter electrostatics: efficient improved simulation technique for highly precise calculation of field enhancement factors

When solving the Laplace equation numerically via computer simulation, in order to determine the field values at the surface of a shape model that represents a field emitter, it is necessary to define a simulation box and, within this, a simulation domain. This domain must not be so small that the box boundaries have an undesirable influence on the predicted field values. A recent paper discussed the situation of cylindrically symmetric emitter models that stand on one of a pair of well-separated parallel plates. This geometry can be simulated by using two-dimensional domains. For a cylindrical simulation box, formulae have previously been presented that define the minimum domain dimensions (MDD) (height and radius) needed to evaluate the apex value of the field enhancement factor for this type of model, with an error-magnitude never larger than a "tolerance" $ε_{\rm{tol}}$. This MDD criterion helps to avoid inadvertent errors and oversized domains. The present article discusses (in greater depth than previously) a significant improvement in the MDD method; this improvement has been called the MDD Extrapolation Technique (MDDET). By carrying out two simulations with relatively small MDD values, it is possible to achieve a level of precision comparable with the results of carrying out a single simulation using a much larger simulation domain. For some simulations, this could result in significant savings of memory requirements and computing time. Following a brief restatement of the original MDD method, the MDDET method is illustrated by applying it to the hemiellipsoid-on-plane (HEP) and hemisphere-on-cylindrical-post (HCP) emitter shape models.

physics.comp-ph↗

arXiv2023

Proposal that interpretation of field emission current-voltage characteristics should be treated as a specialized form of electrical engineering

This article proposes that we should think differently about predicting and interpreting measured field electron emission (FE) current-voltage [I(V)] characteristics. It is commonly assumed that I(V) data interpretation is a problem in emission physics and related electrostatics. Many experimentalists then apply Fowler-Nordheim plot methodology, developed in 1929. However, with modern emitting materials this 90-year-old interpretation methodology often fails (maybe in nearly 50% of cases), and yields spurious values for characterization parameters, particularly field enhancement factors. This has generated an unreliable literature, and validity checks on experimental I(V) data are nearly always needed before use. A new check, supplementing existing checks, is described. Twelve different "system complications" that, acting singly or in combinations, can cause validity-check failure are identified. A top-level path forwards from this unsatisfactory situation is proposed. The term "field electron emission system (FE system)" is defined to include all aspects of an experimental system that affect the measured I(V) characteristics. The analysis of FE systems should now be regarded as a specialized form of electronic/electrical engineering, provisionally called "FE Systems Engineering". In this approach, the I(V) relationship is split: (a) the current is expressed as a function I(F_C) of the local surface-field magnitude F_C at some defined emitter surface location "C"; and (b) the relationship between F_C and measured voltage V is expressed and determined separately. Determining I(F_C) is mostly a problem in emission physics; determining the relationship (F_C)(V) depends on system electrostatics and (for systems failing a validity check) on other aspects of FE Systems Engineering. The scope of FE Systems Engineering, and some related research implications and problems, are outlined.

cond-mat.mes-hall↗

arXiv2022

Post-field ionization of Si clusters in atom probe tomography: A joint theoretical and experimental study

A major challenge for Atom Probe Tomography (APT) quantification is the inability to decouple ions which possess the same mass/charge-state ($m/n$) ratio but a different mass. For example, $^{75}{\rm{As}}^{+}$ and $^{75}{\rm{As}}{_2}^{2+}$ at ~75 Da or $^{14}{\rm{N}}^+$ and $^{28}{\rm{Si}}^{2+}$ at ~14 Da, cannot be differentiated without the additional knowledge of their kinetic energy or a significant improvement of the mass resolving power. Such mass peak overlaps lead to ambiguities in peak assignment, resulting in compositional uncertainty and an incorrect labelling of the atoms in a reconstructed volume. In the absence of a practical technology for measuring the kinetic energy of the field-evaporated ions, we propose and then explore the applicability of a post-experimental analytical approach to resolve this problem based on the fundamental process that governs the production of multiply charged molecular ions/clusters in APT, i.e., Post-Field Ionization (PFI). The ability to predict the PFI behaviour of molecular ions as a function of operating conditions could offer the first step towards resolving peak overlap and minimizing compositional uncertainty. We explore this possibility by comparing the field dependence of the charge-state-ratio for Si clusters ($\rm{Si}_2$, $\rm{Si}_3$ and $\rm{Si}_4$) with theoretical predictions using the widely accepted Kingham PFI theory. We then discuss the model parameters that may affect the quality of the fit and the possible ways in which the PFI of molecular ions in APT can be better understood. Finally, we test the transferability of the proposed approach to different material systems and outline ways forward for achieving more reliable results.

quant-ph↗

arXiv2022

Field emission: calculations supporting a new methodology of comparing theory with experiment

This paper presents a new methodology for making comparisons between the theory of field electron emission (FE) and experiment, and is intended as a "demonstration of concept". This methodology is based on the value of the exponent kappa that describes the power to which voltage is raised in the pre-exponential of a mathematical equation that describes (for an electronically ideal FE system) the dependence of measured emission current on measured voltage. The aim is to use experimental exponent-values kappa^expt in an attempt to decide between two alternative FE theories, for both of which allowable (but different) ranges of kappa have been established. At present, there is limited information on what contribution to the "total theoretical kappa" is made by the voltage-dependence of the notional emission area: this paper reports simulations intended to add to our knowledge about this, for four common assumed shapes of an emitter apex. The methodology is then applied to the choice between 1928/29 Fowler-Nordheim (FN) FE theory and 1956 Murphy-Good (MG) FE theory (which is a situation where it is theoretically certain that 1956 MG FE theory is "better physics" than 1928/29 FN FE theory). Like all previous attempts to reach the known correct theoretical conclusion by experimentally based argument, the outcome of the new methodology tends to favour MG FE theory, but is formally indecisive at this stage of discussion. There seems an urgent need for better methods of measuring kappa^expt and of establishing reliable experimental error limits.

cond-mat.mes-hall↗

arXiv2022

Interpretation of field emission current-voltage data: background theory and detailed simulation testing of a user-friendly webtool

In field electron emission (FE) studies, to interpret current-voltage data and extract characterization parameters, we use smooth planar metal-like emitter (SPME) methodology and a data-analysis plot. Three types exist: Millikan-Lauritsen (ML), Fowler-Nordheim (FN) and Murphy-Good (MG) plots. In SPME methodology, ML and FN plots are slightly curved but a MG plot is nearly straight. 1956 MG FE theory is better physics than 1928 FN theory, so we expect MG plots to be more precise than ML or FN plots. Current-voltage data are often converted: measured voltage to (apparent) macroscopic field, current to macroscopic current density. Thus, four different data-input forms exist. Over-simplified models of system behaviour are widely assumed. Whether simple use of a data-analysis plot is a valid interpretation method is often neglected. Published FE studies seem to contain a high incidence of spurious values for "field enhancement factor". A procedure (the "Orthodoxy Test") described in 2013 allows a validity check: around 40 % of a small sample of results were spuriously high. To assist data interpretation and validity checks, a simple user-friendly webtool has been designed by the lead author. As inputs, this needs system specification data and "range-limits" data from any of the three plot forms, using any of the four data-input forms. The webtool then applies the Orthodoxy Test, and -- if passed -- extracts characterization parameters. This study reports: (1) systematic tests of webtool functionality, using simulated input data prepared using Extended MG FE theory; and (2) systematic comparisons of the three different data-plot types, to check how well extracted parameter values match simulation input values. A summary review of relevant theory is given. For formal emission areas, the MG plot performs better than FN and ML plots. This is important for FE science.

physics.ins-det↗

arXiv2022

21st Century Planar Field Emission Theory and its Role in Vacuum Breakdown Science

For explaining electrical breakdown, field electron emission (FE) is a mechanism of interest. In the period 2006 to 2010 there were significant developments in basic FE theory, but these have not yet fully entered general thinking in technological FE areas, which are often still based on 1960s thinking or (in some contexts) 1920s thinking about FE theory. This paper outlines the history of FE theory and provides an overview of modern developments and of some related topics, in so far as these affect the interpretation of experiments and the explanation of physical phenomena. The paper concentrates on principles, with references given where details can be found. Some suggestions are made about moving to the use of "21st-Century" FE theory. In addition, an error in Feynman's treatment of the electrostatics of pointed conductors is displayed, and it is found that Zener tunneling is implausible as a primary cause of vacuum breakdown from a CuO overlayer.

cond-mat.mes-hall↗

arXiv2022

Field emitter electrostatics: a review with special emphasis on modern high-precision finite-element modelling

This review of quantitative field emitter electrostatics, covering analytical, numerical and fitted-formula approaches, is thought the first of its kind. The review relates chiefly to situations where emitters operate in an electronically ideal manner, and zero-current electrostatics is applicable. Terminology is carefully described and is polarity independent; thus the review applies to both field electron and field ion emitters. It also applies more generally to charged, pointed electron-conductors that exhibit the "electrostatic lightning-rod effect", but are poorly discussed in general electricity and magnetism literature. Modern electron-conductor electrostatics is an application of the chemical thermodynamics and statistical mechanics of electrons. The review focuses chiefly on the electrostatics of two common basic emitter forms: the needle-shaped emitters used in traditional projection technologies; and the post-shaped emitters often used in modelling large-area multi-emitter electron sources. In the post-on-plane context, we consider in detail both the electrostatics of the single post and the interaction between two identical posts that occurs as a result of electrostatic depolarization (often called "screening" or "shielding"). Core to the review are discussions of the "minimum domain dimensions" method for implementing effective finite-element-method electrostatic simulations, and of the variant that leads to very precise estimates of dimensionless field enhancement factors (error typically less than 0.001 % in situations where analytical comparisons exist). Brief outline discussions, and core references, are given for each of many "related considerations" that are relevant to the electrostatic situations, methods and results described. Many areas of field emitter electrostatics are suggested where further research and/or separate mini-reviews would probably be useful.

cond-mat.mes-hall↗

arXiv2021

Using Murphy-Good Plots to Interpret Field Emission Current-Voltage Data

This paper focuses on one small but significant part of a long-term project that aims to improve the interpretation of measured field electron emission (FE) current-voltage [I_m(V_m)] data, and (later) the formulation of FE theory. A new form of FE I_m(V_m) data-analysis plot - the so-called "Murphy-Good (MG) plot" - has recently been introduced, within the general framework of the prevailing "smooth planar metal-like emitter" methodology. This new plot form, and the reasons for its introduction, are discussed. It is shown that the MG plot can perform all the functions that the traditional (90-year old) Fowler-Nordheim plot does, but in addition yields relatively precise results for the characterization parameter formal emission area. It can be argued that, certainly in scientific contexts, the use of MG plots could usefully replace the use of FN plots.

cond-mat.mes-hall↗

arXiv2021

Comment on 'Design and circuit simulation of nanoscale vacuum channel transistors' by J. Xu, Y. Qin, Y. Shi, Y. Yang and X. Zhang, Nanoscale Adv. 2020, 2, 3582

These comments aim to correct some apparent weaknesses in the theory of field electron emission given in a recent paper about nanoscale vacuum channel transistors, and to improve the presentation of this theory. In particular, it is argued that a "simplified" formula stated in the paper should not be used, because this formula is known to under-predict emission current densities by a large factor (typically around 300 for an emitting surface with local work function 4.5 eV). Thus, the "simplified" formula may significantly under-predict the practical performance of a nanoscale vacuum channel transistor.

cond-mat.mes-hall↗

arXiv2020

Comment on "Advanced field emission measurement techniques for research on modern cold cathode materials and their applications for transmission-type x-ray sources" [Rev. Sci. Instrum. 91, 083906 (2020)]

This Comment suggests that technological field electron emission (FE) papers, such as the paper under discussion [P. Serbun et al.,, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 91, 083906 (2020)], should use FE theory based on the 1956 work of Murphy and Good (MG), rather than a simplified version of FE theory based on the original 1928 work of Fowler and Nordheim (FN). Use of the 1928 theory is common practice in technological FE literature, but the MG treatment is known to be better physics than the FN treatment, which contains identifiable errors. The MG treatment predicts significantly higher emission current densities and currents for emitters than does the FN treatment. From the viewpoint of the research and development of electron sources, it is counterproductive (and unhelpful for non-experts) for the technological FE literature to use theory that undervalues the performance of field electron emitters.

cond-mat.mes-hall↗

arXiv2020

Modeling the Field Emission Enhancement Factor for Capped Carbon Nanotubes using the Induced Electron Density

In many field electron emission experiments on single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs), the SWCNT stands on one of two well-separated parallel plane plates, with a macroscopic field FM applied between them. For any given location "L" on the SWCNT surface, a field enhancement factor (FEF) is defined as $F_{\rm{L}}$/$F_{\rm{M}}$, where $F_{\rm{L}}$ is a local field defined at "L". The best emission measurements from small-radii capped SWCNTs exhibit characteristic FEFs that are constant (i.e., independent of $F_{\rm{M}}$). This paper discusses how to retrieve this result in quantum-mechanical (as opposed to classical electrostatic) calculations. Density functional theory (DFT) is used to analyze the properties of two short, floating SWCNTS, capped at both ends, namely a (6,6) and a (10,0) structure. Both have effectively the same height ($\sim 5.46$ nm) and radius ($\sim 0.42$ nm). It is found that apex values of local induced FEF are similar for the two SWCNTs, are independent of $F_{\rm{M}}$, and are similar to FEF-values found from classical conductor models. It is suggested that these induced-FEF values relate to the SWCNT longitudinal system polarizabilities, which are presumed similar. The DFT calculations also generate "real", as opposed to ``induced", potential-energy (PE) barriers for the two SWCNTs, for FM-values from 3 V/$μ$m to 2 V/nm. PE profiles along the SWCNT axis and along a parallel ``observation line" through one of the topmost atoms are similar. At low macroscopic fields the details of barrier shape differ for the two SWCNT types. Even for $F_{\rm{M}}=0$, there are distinct PE structures present at the emitter apex (different for the two SWCNTs); this suggests the presence of structure-specific chemically induced charge transfers and related patch-field distributions.

cond-mat.mes-hall↗