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Robert Lupton

Publications and source records attributed to Robert Lupton.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

An overview of stray light findings and interpretation during on-sky commissioning of LSSTCam

Wide-field telescopes are intrinsically difficult to shield from unwanted stray and scattered light, while the search to identify sources of contaminating light is frequently a challenging task. The Vera C.~Rubin Observatory, which achieved its first photon with the LSST Camera (LSSTCam) on April 15, 2025, will initiate a revolutionary era for the study of dark matter, dark energy, the transient sky, the Solar System, and the Milky Way. LSSTCam will provide near seeing-limited images of the sky in six bands ($u,g,r,i,z,y$) over a $3.^\circ 5$-diameter field of view, and over the course of a decade, it will execute the Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST). This work provides an overview of the dedicated stray and scattered light test campaign that has been undertaken since the start of Rubin commissioning. In particular, we highlight the processes used to characterize, model, and mitigate stray light present in LSSTCam images. The Rubin commissioning team created a series of testing and analysis tools to track stray light artifacts from their initial discovery through reproduction with timely observations, simulation using ray tracing to identify opto-mechanical origins, and finally devising corrective actions. The complex stray light features encountered by Rubin provide a wealth of experience for the future wide-field and extremely wide-field observatories. This work covers the many stages of a long journey that started with conceiving an innovative and challenging optical design, followed by the engineering and system engineering efforts to build it, to finally delivering an optimized and revolutionary cutting-edge facility.

astro-ph.IM

Prime Focus Spectrograph on the Subaru Telescope: Overview of Science Operations

The paper presents the science operation framework for Prime Focus Spectrograph (PFS or 'Onohi'ula in its Hawaiian name) installed at the 8.2m Subaru Telescope on the summit of Maunakea. PFS is a massively multiplexed, wide-field, fiber-fed spectrograph covering 1.25 square degrees with 2386 science fibers. The instrument has been offered to the Subaru scientific community since March 2025. In order to fully exploit the unique capabilities of PFS, the Subaru Telescope has introduced a new, dedicated science operation framework for PFS. The default observing mode is queue observing, and multiple observing programs (in the same field) can be executed in the same exposure to achieve high observing efficiency. The quality of an exposure is based on the delivered signal-to-noise ratio and is quantified in terms of 'effective exposure time', and exposures are taken until the allocated 'fiber hours' for each program or target are achieved. The fiber hour is a new unit for observing time at Subaru; if we expose a fiber for 1 hour under the fiducial conditions, it is 1 fiber hour. Each observing program is granted the total fiber hours by the Time Allocation Committee. In addition to normal observing programs, which are selected through the standard peer-review process, there are two filler categories; community filler and observatory filler. As the names imply, the former is proposed by the community and the latter is prepared by the observatory. These filler targets are used whenever unassigned fibers are available. After an observing run, the data are fully reduced by the observatory and delivered to the users through the PFS Science Platform, a cloud-based data analysis environment. The paper gives a summary of all of this new framework and the actual implementation of it.

astro-ph.IM

NSF-DOE Vera C. Rubin Observatory Observations of Interstellar Comet 3I/ATLAS (C/2025 N1)

We report on the observation and measurement of astrometry, photometry, morphology, and activityof the interstellar object 3I/ATLAS, also designated C/2025 N1 (ATLAS) with the NSF-DOE Vera C. Rubin Observatory. Comet 3I/ATLAS, the third known interstellar object, was discovered on UT 2025 July 1. Rubin Observatory had coincidentally collected images of the object's region of the sky during routine commissioning. Facilitated by Rubin's high resolution and large aperture, we successfully recovered object detections from Rubin observations spanning UT 2025 June 21 (10 days before discovery, when 3I/ATLAS was 4.5 au from the Sun) through the date of discovery, and we acquired additional images through UT 2025 July 20 as part of commissioning. We measure on-sky locations of 3I/ATLAS in Rubin ugrizy bands, with a typical precision of about 70 mas, and briefly describe the reason this is coarser than our measured static source astrometric precision of about 3 mas in Rubin images. We measure grizy magnitudes of 3I/ATLAS photometry at about 0.01 mag precision, detecting no short-term photometric variability above 0.01 mag. We derive an estimated near-nucleus dust-to-nucleus scattering cross-section ratio of eta >= 13 on UT 2025 July 2 based on Rubin photometry and an upper limit nucleus size computed from Hubble Space Telescope observations. We find Rubin colors of g - r = (0.657 +/- 0.013) mag, r - i = (0.235 +/- 0.018) mag, i - z = (0.147 +/- 0.042) mag, z - y = (0.047 +/- 0.052) mag. These data represent the earliest observations of this object by a large (>=8-meter class) telescope and illustrate the type of measurements (and discoveries) Rubin's Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST) will begin to provide after it begins in early 2026.

astro-ph.EP

Merian: A Wide-Field Imaging Survey of Dwarf Galaxies at z~0.06-0.10

We present the Merian Survey, an optical imaging survey optimized for studying the physical properties of bright star-forming dwarf galaxies. Merian is carried out with two medium-band filters ($N708$ and $N540$, centered at $708$ and $540$ nm), custom-built for the Dark Energy Camera (DECam) on the Blanco telescope. Merian covers $\sim 750\,\mathrm{deg}^2$ of equatorial fields, overlapping with the Hyper Suprime-Cam Subaru Strategic Program (HSC-SSP) wide, deep, and ultra-deep fields. When combined with the HSC-SSP imaging data ($grizy$), the new Merian DECam medium-band imaging allows for photometric redshift measurements via the detection of H$\rm\alpha$ and [OIII] line emission flux excess in the $N708$ and $N540$ filters, respectively, at $0.06<z<0.10$. We present an overview of the survey design, observations taken to date, data reduction using the LSST Science Pipelines, including aperture-matched photometry for accurate galaxy colors, and a description of the data included in the first data release (DR1). The key science goals of Merian include: probing the dark matter halos of dwarf galaxies out to their virial radii using high signal-to-noise weak lensing profile measurements, decoupling the effects of baryonic processes from dark matter, and understanding the role of black holes in dwarf galaxy evolution. This rich dataset will also offer unique opportunities for studying extremely metal-poor galaxies via their strong [OIII] emission and H$\rm\alpha$ lines, as well as [OIII] emitters at $z\sim 0.4$, and Ly$\rm\alpha$ emitters at $z\sim 3.3$ and $z\sim 4.8$. Merian showcases the power of utilizing narrow and medium-band filters alongside broad-band filters for sky imaging, demonstrating their synergistic capacity to unveil astrophysical insights across diverse astrophysical phenomena.

astro-ph.GA

The little coadd that could: Estimating shear from coadded images

Upcoming wide field surveys will have many overlapping epochs of the same region of sky. The conventional wisdom is that in order to reduce the errors sufficiently for systematics-limited measurements, like weak lensing, we must do simultaneous fitting of all the epochs. Using current algorithms this will require a significant amount of computing time and effort. In this paper, we revisit the potential of using coadds for shear measurements. We show on a set of image simulations that the multiplicative shear bias can be constrained below the 0.1% level on coadds, which is sufficient for future lensing surveys. We see no significant differences between simultaneous fitting and coadded approaches for two independent shear codes: Metacalibration and BFD. One caveat of our approach is the assumption of a principled coadd, i.e. the PSF is mathematically well-defined for all the input images. This requires us to reject CCD images that do not fully cover the coadd region. We estimate that the number of epochs that must be rejected for a survey like LSST is on the order of 20%, resulting in a small loss in depth of less than 0.1 magnitudes. We also put forward a cell-based coaddition scheme that meets the above requirements for unbiased weak lensing shear estimation in the context of LSST.

astro-ph.CO

Instrument Signature Removal and Calibration Products for the Rubin Legacy Survey of Space and Time

The Vera C. Rubin Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST) will conduct an unprecedented optical survey of the southern sky, imaging the entire available sky every few nights for 10 years. To achieve its ambitious science goals of probing dark energy and dark matter, mapping the Milky Way, and exploring the transient optical sky, the systematic errors in the LSST data must be exquisitely controlled. Instrument signature removal (ISR) is a critical early step in LSST data processing to remove inherent camera effects from the raw images and produce accurate representations of the incoming light. This paper describes the current state of the ISR pipelines implemented in the LSST Science Pipelines software. The key steps in ISR are outlined, and the process of generating and verifying the necessary calibration products to carry out ISR is also discussed. Finally, an overview is given of how the Rubin data management system utilizes a data Butler and calibration collections to organize datasets and match images to appropriate calibrations during processing. Precise ISR will be essential to realize the potential of LSST to revolutionize astrophysics.

astro-ph.IM

The Merian Survey: Design, Construction, and Characterization of a Filter Set Optimized to Find Dwarf Galaxies and Measure their Dark Matter Halo Properties with Weak Lensing

The Merian survey is mapping $\sim$ 850 degrees$^2$ of the Hyper Suprime-Cam Strategic Survey Program (HSC-SSP) wide layer with two medium-band filters on the 4-meter Victor M. Blanco telescope at the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory, with the goal of carrying the first high signal-to-noise (S/N) measurements of weak gravitational lensing around dwarf galaxies. This paper presents the design of the Merian filter set: N708 ($λ_c = 7080 \unicode{x212B}$, $Δλ= 275\unicode{x212B}$) and N540 ($λ_c = 5400\unicode{x212B}$, $Δλ= 210\unicode{x212B}$). The central wavelengths and filter widths of N708 and N540 were designed to detect the $\rm Hα$ and $\rm [OIII]$ emission lines of galaxies in the mass range $8<\rm \log M_*/M_\odot<9$ by comparing Merian fluxes with HSC broad-band fluxes. Our filter design takes into account the weak lensing S/N and photometric redshift performance. Our simulations predict that Merian will yield a sample of $\sim$ 85,000 star-forming dwarf galaxies with a photometric redshift accuracy of $σ_{Δz/(1+z)}\sim 0.01$ and an outlier fraction of $η=2.8\%$ over the redshift range $0.058<z<0.10$. With 60 full nights on the Blanco/Dark Energy Camera (DECam), the Merian survey is predicted to measure the average weak lensing profile around dwarf galaxies with lensing $\rm S/N \sim 32$ within $r<0.5$ Mpc and lensing $\rm S/N \sim 90$ within $r<1.0$ Mpc. This unprecedented sample of star-forming dwarf galaxies will allow for studies of the interplay between dark matter and stellar feedback and their roles in the evolution of dwarf galaxies.

astro-ph.GA

Reaching for the Edge I: Probing the Outskirts of Massive Galaxies with HSC, DECaLS, SDSS, and Dragonfly

The outer light (stellar halos) of massive galaxies has recently emerged as a possible low scatter tracer of dark matter halo mass. To test the robustness of outer light measurements across different data sets, we compare the surface brightness profiles of massive galaxies using four independent data sets: the Hyper Suprime-Cam survey (HSC), the Dark Energy Camera Legacy Survey (DECaLS), the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS), and the Dragonfly Wide Field Survey (Dragonfly). We use customized pipelines for HSC and DECaLS to achieve better sky background subtraction. For galaxies at $z<0.05$, Dragonfly has the best control of systematics, reaching surface brightness levels of $μ_r \sim 30$ mag/arcsec$^{2}$. At $0.19 200$ kpc without significant bias. At $0.19<z<0.50$, DECaLS and HSC measurements of the stellar mass contained within 100 kpc agree within 0.05 dex. Finally, we use weak gravitational lensing to show that measurements of outer light with DECaLS at $0.19<z<0.50$ show a similar promise as HSC as a low scatter proxy of halo mass. The tests and results from this paper represent an important step forward for accurate measurements of the outer light of massive galaxies and demonstrate that outer light measurements from DECam imaging will be a promising method for finding galaxy clusters for DES and DESI.

astro-ph.GA

A comparative study of satellite galaxies in Milky Way-like galaxies from HSC, DECaLS and SDSS

We conduct a comprehensive and statistical study of the luminosity functions (LFs) for satellite galaxies, by counting photometric galaxies from HSC, DECaLS and SDSS around isolated central galaxies (ICGs) and paired galaxies from the SDSS/DR7 spectroscopic sample. Results of different surveys show very good agreement. The satellite LFs can be measured down to $M_V\sim-10$, and for central primary galaxies as small as $8.5<\log_{10}M_\ast/M_\odot<9.2$ and $9.2<\log_{10}M_\ast/M_\odot<9.9$, implying there are on average 3--8 satellites with $M_V<-10$ around LMC-mass ICGs. The bright end cutoff of satellite LFs and the satellite abundance are both sensitive to the magnitude gap between the primary and its companions, indicating galaxy systems with larger magnitude gaps are on average hosted by less massive dark matter haloes. By selecting primaries with stellar mass similar to our MW, we discovered that i) the averaged satellite LFs of ICGs with different magnitude gaps to their companions and of galaxy pairs with different colour or colour combinations all show steeper slopes than the MW satellite LF; ii) there are on average more satellites with $-15 -12$. Hence the MW and its satellite system are statistically atypical of our sample of MW-mass systems. In consequence, our MW is not a good representative of other MW-mass galaxies. Strong cosmological implications based on only MW satellites await additional discoveries of fainter satellites in extra-galactic systems. Interestingly, the MW satellite LF is typical among other MW-mass systems within 40~Mpc in the local Universe, perhaps implying the Local Volume is an under-dense region.

astro-ph.GA

Second Data Release of the Hyper Suprime-Cam Subaru Strategic Program

This paper presents the second data release of the Hyper Suprime-Cam Subaru Strategic Program, a wide-field optical imaging survey on the 8.2 meter Subaru Telescope. The release includes data from 174 nights of observation through January 2018. The Wide layer data cover about 300 deg^2 in all five broadband filters (grizy) to the nominal survey exposure (10min in gr and 20min in izy). Partially observed areas are also included in the release; about 1100 deg^2 is observed in at least one filter and one exposure. The median seeing in the i-band is 0.6 arcsec, demonstrating the superb image quality of the survey. The Deep (26 deg^2) and UltraDeep (4 deg^2) data are jointly processed and the UltraDeep-COSMOS field reaches an unprecedented depth of i~28 at 5 sigma for point sources. In addition to the broad-bands, narrow-band data are also available in the Deep and UltraDeep fields. This release includes a major update to the processing pipeline, including improved sky subtraction, PSF modeling, object detection, and artifact rejection. The overall data quality has been improved, but this release is not without problems; there is a persistent deblender problem as well as new issues with masks around bright stars. The user is encouraged to review the issue list before utilizing the data for scientific explorations. All the image products as well as catalog products are available for download. The catalogs are also loaded to a database, which provides an easy interface for users to retrieve data for objects of interest. In addition to these main data products, detailed galaxy shape measurements withheld from the Public Data Release 1 (PDR1) are now available to the community. The shape catalog is drawn from the S16A internal release, which has a larger area than PDR1 (160 deg^2). All products are available at the data release site, https://hsc-release.mtk.nao.ac.jp/.

astro-ph.IM

The stellar halo of isolated central galaxies in the Hyper Suprime-Cam imaging survey

We study the faint stellar halo of isolated central galaxies, by stacking galaxy images in the HSC survey and accounting for the residual sky background sampled with random points. The surface brightness profiles in HSC $r$-band are measured for a wide range of galaxy stellar masses ($9.2<\log_{10}M_\ast/M_\odot<11.4$) and out to 120 kpc. Failing to account for the stellar halo below the noise level of individual images will lead to underestimates of the total luminosity by $\leq 15\%$. Splitting galaxies according to the concentration parameter of their light distributions, we find that the surface brightness profiles of low concentration galaxies drop faster between 20 and 100 kpc than those of high concentration galaxies. Albeit the large galaxy-to-galaxy scatter, we find a strong self-similarity of the stellar halo profiles. They show unified forms once the projected distance is scaled by the halo virial radius. The colour of galaxies is redder in the centre and bluer outside, with high concentration galaxies having redder and more flattened colour profiles. There are indications of a colour minimum, beyond which the colour of the outer stellar halo turns red again. This colour minimum, however, is very sensitive to the completeness in masking satellite galaxies. We also examine the effect of the extended PSF in the measurement of the stellar halo, which is particularly important for low mass or low concentration galaxies. The PSF-corrected surface brightness profile can be measured down to $\sim$31 $\mathrm{mag}/\mathrm{arcsec}^2$ at 3-$σ$ significance. PSF also slightly flattens the measured colour profiles.

astro-ph.GA

SCARLET: Source separation in multi-band images by Constrained Matrix Factorization

We present the source separation framework SCARLET for multi-band images, which is based on a generalization of the Non-negative Matrix Factorization to alternative and several simultaneous constraints. Our approach describes the observed scene as a mixture of components with compact spatial support and uniform spectra over their support. We present the algorithm to perform the matrix factorization and introduce constraints that are useful for optical images of stars and distinct stellar populations in galaxies, in particular symmetry and monotonicity with respect to the source peak position. We also derive the treatment of correlated noise and convolutions with band-dependent point spread functions, rendering our approach applicable to coadded images observed under variable seeing conditions. SCARLET thus yields a PSF-matched photometry measurement with an optimally chosen weight function given by the mean morphology in all available bands. We demonstrate the performance of SCARLET for deblending crowded extragalactic scenes and on an AGN jet -- host galaxy separation problem in deep 5-band imaging from the Hyper Suprime-Cam Stategic Survey Program. Using simulations with prominent crowding we show that SCARLET yields superior results to the HSC-SDSS deblender for the recovery of total fluxes, colors, and morphologies. Due to its non-parametric nature, a conceptual limitation of SCARLET is its sensitivity to undetected sources or multiple stellar population within detected sources, but an iterative strategy that adds components at the location of significant residuals appears promising. The code is implemented in Python with C++ extensions and is available at https://github.com/fred3m/scarlet

astro-ph.IM

A collimated beam projector for precise telescope calibration

The precise determination of the instrumental response function versus wavelength is a central ingredient in contemporary photometric calibration strategies. This typically entails propagating narrowband illumination through the system pupil, and comparing the detected photon rate across the focal plane to the amount of incident light as measured by a calibrated photodiode. However, stray light effects and reflections/ghosting (especially on the edges of filter passbands) in the optical train constitute a major source of systematic uncertainty when using a flat-field screen as the illumination source. A collimated beam projector that projects a mask onto the focal plane of the instrument can distinguish focusing light paths from stray and scattered light, allowing for a precise determination of instrumental throughput. This paper describes the conceptual design of such a system, outlines its merits, and presents results from a prototype system used with the Dark Energy Camera wide field imager on the 4-meter Blanco telescope. A calibration scheme that blends results from flat-field images with collimated beam projector data to obtain the equivalent of an illumination correction at high spectral and angular resolution is also presented. In addition to providing a precise system throughput calibration, by monitoring the evolution of the intensity and behaviour of the ghosts in the optical system, the collimated beam projector can be used to track the evolution of the filter transmission properties and various anti-reflective coatings in the optical system.

astro-ph.IM

WFIRST Science Investigation Team "Cosmology with the High Latitude Survey" Annual Report 2017

Cosmic acceleration is the most surprising cosmological discovery in many decades. Testing and distinguishing among possible explanations requires cosmological measurements of extremely high precision probing the full history of cosmic expansion and structure growth and, ideally, compare and contrast matter and relativistic tracers of the gravity potential. This program is one of the defining objectives of the Wide-Field Infrared Survey Telescope (WFIRST), as set forth in the New Worlds, New Horizons report (NWNH) in 2010. The WFIRST mission has the ability to improve these measurements by 1-2 orders of magnitude compared to the current state of the art, while simultaneously extending their redshift grasp, greatly improving control of systematic effects, and taking a unified approach to multiple probes that provide complementary physical information and cross-checks of cosmological results. We describe in this annual report the activities of the Science Investigation Team (SIT) "Cosmology with the High Latitude Survey (HLS)" during the year 2017. This team was selected by NASA in December 2015 in order to address the stringent challenges of the WFIRST dark energy (DE) program through the Project's formulation phase. This SIT has elected to jointly address Galaxy Redshift Survey, Weak Lensing and Cluster Growth and thus fully embrace the fact that the imaging and spectroscopic elements of the HLS will be realized as an integrated observing program, and they jointly impose requirements on performance and operations. WFIRST is designed to be able to deliver a definitive result on the origin of cosmic acceleration. It is not optimized for Figure of Merit sensitivity but for control of systematic uncertainties and for having multiple techniques each with multiple cross-checks. Our SIT work focuses on understanding the potential systematics in the WFIRST DE measurements.

astro-ph.CO

Scientific Synergy Between LSST and Euclid

Euclid and the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST) are poised to dramatically change the astronomy landscape early in the next decade. The combination of high cadence, deep, wide-field optical photometry from LSST with high resolution, wide-field optical photometry and near-infrared photometry and spectroscopy from Euclid will be powerful for addressing a wide range of astrophysical questions. We explore Euclid/LSST synergy, ignoring the political issues associated with data access to focus on the scientific, technical, and financial benefits of coordination. We focus primarily on dark energy cosmology, but also discuss galaxy evolution, transient objects, solar system science, and galaxy cluster studies. We concentrate on synergies that require coordination in cadence or survey overlap, or would benefit from pixel-level co-processing that is beyond the scope of what is currently planned, rather than scientific programs that could be accomplished only at the catalog level without coordination in data processing or survey strategies. We provide two quantitative examples of scientific synergies: the decrease in photo-z errors (benefitting many science cases) when high resolution Euclid data are used for LSST photo-z determination, and the resulting increase in weak lensing signal-to-noise ratio from smaller photo-z errors. We briefly discuss other areas of coordination, including high performance computing resources and calibration data. Finally, we address concerns about the loss of independence and potential cross-checks between the two missions and potential consequences of not collaborating.

astro-ph.IM

The Hyper Suprime-Cam Software Pipeline

In this paper, we describe the optical imaging data processing pipeline developed for the Subaru Telescope's Hyper Suprime-Cam (HSC) instrument. The HSC Pipeline builds on the prototype pipeline being developed by the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope's Data Management system, adding customizations for HSC, large-scale processing capabilities, and novel algorithms that have since been reincorporated into the LSST codebase. While designed primarily to reduce HSC Subaru Strategic Program (SSP) data, it is also the recommended pipeline for reducing general-observer HSC data. The HSC pipeline includes high level processing steps that generate coadded images and science-ready catalogs as well as low-level detrending and image characterizations.

astro-ph.IM

Characterization and Photometric Performance of the Hyper Suprime-Cam Software Pipeline

The Subaru Strategic Program (SSP) is an ambitious multi-band survey using the Hyper Suprime-Cam (HSC) on the Subaru telescope. The Wide layer of the SSP is both wide and deep, reaching a detection limit of i~26.0 mag. At these depths, it is challenging to achieve accurate, unbiased, and consistent photometry across all five bands. The HSC data are reduced using a pipeline that builds on the prototype pipeline for the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope. We have developed a Python-based, flexible framework to inject synthetic galaxies into real HSC images called SynPipe. Here we explain the design and implementation of SynPipe and generate a sample of synthetic galaxies to examine the photometric performance of the HSC pipeline. For stars, we achieve 1% photometric precision at i~19.0 mag and 6% precision at i~25.0 in the i-band. For synthetic galaxies with single-Sersic profiles, forced CModel photometry achieves 13% photometric precision at i~20.0 mag and 18% precision at i~25.0 in the i-band. We show that both forced PSF and CModel photometry yield unbiased color estimates that are robust to seeing conditions. We identify several caveats that apply to the version of HSC pipeline used for the first public HSC data release (DR1) that need to be taking into consideration. First, the degree to which an object is blended with other objects impacts the overall photometric performance. This is especially true for point sources. Highly blended objects tend to have larger photometric uncertainties, systematically underestimated fluxes and slightly biased colors. Second, >20% of stars at 22.5< i < 25.0 mag can be misclassified as extended objects. Third, the current CModel algorithm tends to strongly underestimate the half-light radius and ellipticity of galaxy with i>21.5 mag.

astro-ph.IM

High fidelity point-spread function retrieval in the presence of electrostatic, hysteretic pixel response

We employ electrostatic conversion drift calculations to match CCD pixel signal covariances observed in flat field exposures acquired using candidate sensor devices for the LSST Camera. We thus constrain pixel geometry distortions present at the end of integration, based on signal images recorded. We use available data from several operational voltage parameter settings to validate our understanding. Our primary goal is to optimize flux point-spread function (FPSF) estimation quantitatively, and thereby minimize sensor-induced errors which may limit performance in precision astronomy applications. We consider alternative compensation scenarios that will take maximum advantage of our understanding of this underlying mechanism in data processing pipelines currently under development. To quantitatively capture the pixel response in high-contrast/high dynamic range operational extrema, we propose herein some straightforward laboratory tests that involve altering the time order of source illumination on sensors, within individual test exposures. Hence the word {\it hysteretic} in the title of this paper.

astro-ph.IM