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Roberto Rampazzo

Publications and source records attributed to Roberto Rampazzo.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

Extraplanar emission in isolated edge-on late-type galaxies.II. The H$\alpha$ kinematics

Isolated galaxies are rare yet invaluable for studying secular evolution, as their physical properties can remain largely unaffected by external influences for several billion years, primarily shaped by internal evolutionary processes. This study focuses on a representative sample of nearly edge-on ($i\geq80^{\circ}$) late-type galaxies selected from the Catalogue of Isolated Galaxies (CIG). We analyse the H$\alpha$ kinematics derived from Fabry-Perot data and integrate these findings with a comprehensive examination of the UV, optical, and FIR properties of these galaxies to study their dynamic evolutionary processes. We investigate the individual kinematics by computing rotation curves and dynamical masses for each galaxy in the sample. The accuracy of our kinematic results is confirmed through comparisons with HI data and by applying the B- and K-band Tully-Fisher relationships. Among the galaxies studied, we observed a rotational lag along the $z$-axis in half of the total sample (7 out of 14 cases), with an average lag ($\Delta V/\Delta z=32.0\pm10.6\,{\rm km\,s^{-1}\,pc^{-1}}$) consistent with previous research findings. Notably, not all galaxies exhibiting measurable lag display morphological extraplanar components, leading us to conclude that this cannot serve as a definitive marker for the extraplanar Diffuse Ionized Gas (eDIG) component. While we found no significant correlations between rotation lag and overall galaxy properties, there seems to be a potential correlation with tidal strength. Based on the kinematic characteristics observed in our sample, we suggest that that the extended disc gas likely originates from interactions with the Circumgalactic Medium (CGM) rather than arising internally within the galaxies themselves.

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Extraplanar emission in isolated edge-on late-type galaxies. I. The H$α$ distribution versus to the old and young stellar discs

Isolated galaxies are the ideal reference sample to study the galaxy structure minimising potential environmental effects. We selected a complete sample of 14 nearby, late-type, highly inclined ($i\geq80^{\circ}$), isolated galaxies from the Catalogue of Isolated Galaxies (CIG) which offers a vertical view of their disc structure. We aim to study extraplanar Diffuse Ionized Gas (eDIG) by comparing the old and young disc components traced by near-infrared (NIR) and Ultraviolet (UV) imaging with the H$α$ emission structure. We obtained H$α$ monochromatic maps from the Fabry-Perot (FP) interferometry, while the old and young discs structures are obtained from the photometric analysis of the 2MASS K$_{s}$-band, and GALEX NUV and FUV images, thereby identifying the stellar disc and whether the eDIG is present. The H$α$ morphology is peculiar in CIG 71, CIG 183, CIG 593 showing clear asymmetries. In general, geometric parameters (isophotal position angle, peak light distribution, inclination) measured from H$α$, UV and NIR show minimal differences (e.g. $Δi\leq\pm$10$^{\circ}$), suggesting that interaction does not play a significant role in shaping the morphology, as expected in isolated galaxies. From H$α$ maps, the eDIG was detected vertically in 11 out of 14 galaxies. Although the fraction of eDIG is high, the comparison between our sample and a generic sample of inclined spirals suggests that the phenomenon is uncorrelated to the galaxy environment. As suggested by the extraplanar UV emission found in 13 out of 14 galaxies the star formation extends well beyond the disc defined by the H$α$ map.

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Ultra diffuse galaxies in the Hydra I cluster from the LEWIS Project: Phase-Space distribution and globular cluster richness

Although ultra diffuse galaxies (UDGs) are found in large numbers in clusters of galaxies, the role of the cluster environment in shaping their low surface brightness and large sizes is still uncertain. Here we examine a sample of UDGs in the Hydra I cluster (D = 51 Mpc) with new radial velocities obtained as part of the LEWIS (Looking into the faintest with MUSE) project using VLT/MUSE data. Using a phase-space, or infall diagnostic, diagram we compare the UDGs to other known galaxies in the Hydra I cluster and to UDGs in other clusters. The UDGs, along with the bulk of regular Hydra I galaxies, have low relative velocities and are located near the cluster core, and thus consistent with very early infall into the cluster. Combining with literature data, we do not find the expected trend of GC-rich UDGs associated with earlier infall times. This result suggests that quenching mechanisms other than cluster infall should be further considered, e.g. quenching by strong feedback or in cosmic sheets and filaments. Tidal stripping of GCs in the cluster environment also warrants further modelling.

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Looking into the faintEst WIth MUSE (LEWIS): on the nature of ultra-diffuse galaxies in the Hydra-I cluster.I. Project description and preliminary results

Looking into the faintEst WIth MUSE (LEWIS) is an ESO large observing programme aimed at obtaining the first homogeneous integral-field spectroscopic survey of 30 extremely low-surface brightness (LSB) galaxies in the Hydra I cluster of galaxies, with MUSE at ESO-VLT. The majority of LSB galaxies in the sample (22 in total) are ultra-diffuse galaxies (UDGs). The distribution of systemic velocities Vsys ranges between 2317 km/s and 5198 km/s and is centred on the mean velocity of Hydra I (Vsys = 3683 $\pm$ 46 km/s). Considering the mean velocity and the velocity dispersion of the cluster, 17 out of 20 targets are confirmed cluster members. To assess the quality of the data and demonstrate the feasibility of the science goals, we report the preliminary results obtained for one of the sample galaxies, UDG11. For this target, we derived the stellar kinematics, including the 2-dimensional maps of line-of-sight velocity and velocity dispersion, constrained age and metallicity, and studied the globular cluster (GC) population hosted by the UDG. Results are compared with the available measurements for UDGs and dwarf galaxies in literature. By fitting the stacked spectrum inside one effective radius, we find that UDG11 has a velocity dispersion $σ= 20 \pm 8$ km/s, it is old ($10\pm1$ Gyr), metal-poor ([M/H]=-1.17$\pm$0.11 dex) and has a total dynamical mass-to-light ratio M$/L_V\sim 14$, comparable to those observed for classical dwarf galaxies. The spatially resolved stellar kinematics maps suggest that UDG11 does not show a significant velocity gradient along either major or minor photometric axes. We find two GCs kinematically associated with UDG11. The estimated total number of GCs in UDG11, corrected for the spectroscopic completeness limit, is $N_{GC}= 5.9^{+2.2}_ {-1.8}$, which corresponds to a GC specific frequency of $S_N = 8.4^{+3.2}_{-2.7}$.

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Galaxy populations in the Hydra I cluster from the VEGAS survey II. The ultra-diffuse galaxy population

In this work, we extend the catalog of low-surface brightness (LSB) galaxies, including Ultra-Diffuse Galaxy (UDG) candidates, within $\approx 0.4R_{vir}$ of the Hydra I cluster of galaxies, based on deep images from the VST Early-type GAlaxy Survey (VEGAS). The new galaxies are found by applying an automatic detection tool and carrying out additional visual inspections of $g$ and $r$ band images. This led to the detection of 11 UDGs and 8 more LSB galaxies. For all of them, the cluster membership has been assessed using the color-magnitude relation derived for early-type giant and dwarf galaxies in Hydra I. The UDGs and new LSB galaxies found in Hydra I span a wide range of central surface brightness ($22.7 \lesssim μ_{0,g} \lesssim 26.5$ mag/arcsec$^2$), effective radius ($0.6 \lesssim R_e \lesssim 4.0$ kpc) and color ($0.4 \leq g-r \leq 0.9$ mag), and have stellar masses in the range $\sim 5\times 10^6 - 2\times 10^8$M$_{\odot}$. The 2D projected distribution of both galaxy types is similar to the spatial distribution of dwarf galaxies, with over-densities in the cluster core and north of the cluster centre. They have similar color distribution and comparable stellar masses to the red dwarf galaxies. Based on photometric selection, we identify a total of 9 globular cluster candidates associated to the UDGs and 4 to the LSB galaxies, with the highest number of candidates in an individual UDG being three. We find that there are no relevant differences between dwarfs, LSB galaxies and UDGs: the structural parameters (that is surface brightness, size, colors, n-index) and GCs content of the three classes have similar properties and trends. This finding is consistent with UDGs being the extreme LSB tail of the size-luminosity distribution of dwarfs in this environment.

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Insights into the evolution of five isolated galaxies

The galaxy evolution is believed to be conditioned by the environment. Isolated galaxies or galaxies in poor groups are an excellent laboratory to study evolutionary mechanisms where effects of the environment are minimal. We present new {\it Swift}-{\tt UVOT} data in six filters, three in the ultraviolet (UV), of five isolated galaxies aiming at shedding light into their evolution. For all of our targets we present new UV integrated fluxes and for some of them also new UBV magnitudes. Our observations allow us to improve their multi-wavelength spectral energy distributions extending it over about 3 orders of magnitude in wavelength. We exploit our smooth-particle hydro-dynamical simulations with chemo-photometric implementation anchored, a posteriori, to the global multi-wavelength properties of our targets, to give insight into their evolution. Then we compare their evolutionary properties with those previously derived for several galaxies in groups. The evolution of our targets is driven by a merger occurred several Gyrs ago, in the redshift range $0.5\leq z \leq 4.5$, not unlike what we have already found for galaxies in groups. The merger shapes the potential well where the gas is accreting driving the star formation rate and the galaxy evolution. Isolated galaxies should not have suffered from interactions for at least 3\,Gyr. However, the initial merger is still leaving its signatures on the properties of our targets. Several rejuvenation episodes, triggered by {\it in situ} accretion, are highlighted. Moreover, jelly-fish morphologies appear as these galaxies achieve their maximum star formation rate, before their quenching phase.

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Galaxy populations in the Hydra I cluster from the VEGAS survey I. Optical properties of a large sample of dwarf galaxies

At ~50 Mpc, the Hydra I cluster of galaxies is among the closest cluster in the z=0 Universe, and an ideal environment to study dwarf galaxy properties in a cluster environment. We exploit deep imaging data of the Hydra I cluster to construct a new photometric catalog of dwarf galaxies in the cluster core, which is then used to derive properties of the Hydra I cluster dwarf galaxies population as well as to compare with other clusters. Moreover, we investigate the dependency of dwarf galaxy properties on their surrounding environment. The new Hydra I dwarf catalog contains 317 galaxies with luminosity between -18.5<$M_r$<-11.5 mag, a semi-major axis larger than ~200 pc (a=0.84 arcsec), of which 202 are new detections, previously unknown dwarf galaxies in the Hydra I central region. We estimate that our detection efficiency reaches 50% at the limiting magnitude $M_r$=-11.5 mag, and at the mean effective surface brightness $\overlineμ_{e,r}$=26.5 mag/$arcsec^2$. We present the standard scaling relations for dwarf galaxies and compare them with other nearby clusters. We find that there are no observational differences for dwarfs scaling relations in clusters of different sizes. We study the spatial distribution of galaxies, finding evidence for the presence of substructures within half the virial radius. We also find that mid- and high-luminosity dwarfs ($M_r$<-14.5 mag) become on average redder toward the cluster center, and that they have a mild increase in $R_e$ with increasing clustercentric distance, similar to what is observed for the Fornax cluster. No clear clustercentric trends are reported with surface brightness and Sérsic index. Considering galaxies in the same magnitude-bins, we find that for high and mid-luminosity dwarfs ($M_r$<-13.5 mag) the g-r color is redder for the brighter surface brightness and higher Sérsic n index objects.

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Formation of an ultra-diffuse galaxy in the stellar filaments of NGC3314A: caught in act?

The VEGAS imaging survey of the Hydra I cluster reveals an extended network of stellar filaments to the south-west of the spiral galaxy NGC3314A. Within these filaments, at a projected distance of ~40 kpc from the galaxy, we discover an ultra-diffuse galaxy (UDG) with a central surface brightness of $μ_{0,g}\sim26$ mag arcsec$^{-2}$ and effective radius $R_e\sim3.8$ kpc. This UDG, named UDG32, is one of the faintest and most diffuse low-surface brightness galaxies in the Hydra~I cluster. Based on the available data, we cannot exclude that this object is just seen in projection on top of the stellar filaments, thus being instead a foreground or background UDG in the cluster. However, the clear spatial coincidence of UDG32 with the stellar filaments of NGC3314A suggests that it might have formed from the material in the filaments, becoming a detached, gravitationally bound system. In this scenario, the origin of UDG32 depends on the nature of the stellar filaments in NGC3314A, which is still unknown. They could result from ram-pressure stripping or have a tidal origin. In this letter, we focus on the comparison of the observed properties of the stellar filaments and UDG32, and speculate about their possible origin. The relatively red color ($g-r=0.54 \pm 0.14$~mag) of the UDG, similar to that of the disk in NGC3314A, combined with an age older than 1Gyr, and the possible presence of a few compact stellar systems, all point towards a tidal formation scenario inferred for the UDG32.

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The VST Early-type GAlaxy Survey: Exploring the Outskirts and Intra-cluster Regions of Galaxies in the Low-surface-brightness Regime

The VST Early-type GAlaxy Survey (VEGAS) is a deep, multi-band (u, g, r, i) imaging survey, carried out with the 2.6-metre VLT Survey Telescope (VST) at ESO's Paranal Observatory in Chile. VEGAS combines the wide (1-square-degree) OmegaCAM imager and long integration times, together with a specially designed observing strategy. It has proven to be a gold mine for studies of features at very low surface brightness, down to levels of mu_g~27-30 magnitudes arcsec^(-2), over 5-8 magnitudes fainter than the dark sky at Paranal. In this article we highlight the main science results obtained with VEGAS observations of galaxies across different environments, from dense clusters of galaxies to unexplored poor groups and in the field.

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VEGAS: A VST Early-type GAlaxy Survey.VI. The diffuse light in HCG 86 from the ultra-deep VEGAS images

Context. In this paper we present ultra deep images of the compact group of galaxies HCG 86 as part of the VEGAS survey. Aims. Our main goals are to estimate the amount of intragroup light (IGL), to study the light and color distributions in order to address the main formation process of the IGL component in groups of galaxies. Methods. We derived the azimuthally averaged surface brightness profiles in the g,r and i bands with g - r and r - i average colors and color profiles for all group members. By fitting the light distribution, we have extrapolated the contribution of the stellar halos plus the diffuse light from the brightest component of each galaxy. The results are compared with theoretical predictions. Results. The long integration time and wide area covered make our data deeper than previous literature studies of the IGL in compact groups of galaxies and allow us to produce an extended (~160 kpc) map of the IGL, down to a surface brightness level of about 30 mag/arcsec^2 in the g band. The IGL in HCG 86 is mainly in diffuse form and has average colors of g - r ~ 0.8 mag and r - i ~ 0.4 mag. The fraction of IGL in HCG 86 is ~ 16% of the total luminosity of the group, and this is consistent with estimates available for other compact groups and loose groups of galaxies of similar virial masses. A weak trend is present between the amount of IGL and the early-type to late-type galaxy ratio. Conclusions. By comparing the IGL fraction and colors with those predicted by simulations, the amount of IGL in HCG 86 would be the result of the disruption of satellites at an epoch of z ~ 0.4. At this redshift, observed colors are consistent with the scenario where the main contribution to the mass of the IGL comes from the intermediate-massive galaxies.

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Investigating early-type galaxy evolution with a multi-wavelength approach. III. Insights from SPH simulations with chemo-photometric implementation

We are exploring galaxy evolution in low density environments exploiting smooth particle hydrodynamic simulations including chemo-photometric implementation. From a large grid of simulations of galaxy encounters and mergers starting from triaxial halos of gas e dark matter, we single out the simulations matching the global properties of our targets. These simulations are used to give insights into their evolution. We focus on 11 early-type galaxies selected because of their nearly passive stage of evolution in the nuclear region. However, a variety of UV features are detected in more than half of these galaxies. We find no significant differences in the formation mechanisms between galaxies with or without UV features. Major and minor mergers are able to reproduce their peculiar UV morphologies, galaxy encounters are more suitable for 'normal' early-type galaxies. Their star formation rate self-quenches several Gyr later the merger/encounter occurred, via gas exhaustion and stellar feedback, moving the galaxy from blue to red colors, driving the galaxy transformation. The length of the quenching is mass dependent and lasts from 1 to 5 Gyr or more in the less massive systems. All our targets are gas rich at redshift 1. Three of them assembled at most 40% of their current stellar mass at z>1, and seven assembled more than 50% between redshift 0.5 and 1. Their stellar mass grows with 4% by crossing the Green Valley before reaching their current position on the NUV-r vs. Mr diagram.

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VEGAS: A VST Early-type GAlaxy Survey. III. Mapping the galaxy structure, interactions and intragroup light in the NGC 5018 group

Most of the galaxies in the Universe at present day are in groups, which are key to understanding the galaxy evolution. In this work we present a new deep mosaic of 1.2 x 1.0 square degrees of the group of galaxies centered on NGC 5018, acquired at the ESO VLT Survey Telescope. We use u, g, r images to analyse the structure of the group members and to estimate the intra-group light. Taking advantage of the deep and multiband photometry and of the large field of view of the VST telescope, we studied the structure of the galaxy members and the faint features into the intra-group space and we give an estimate of the intragroup diffuse light in the NGC 5018 group of galaxies. We found that ~ 41% of the total g-band luminosity of the group is in the form of intragroup light (IGL). The IGL has a (g - r) color consistent with those of other galaxies in the group, indicating that the stripping leading to the formation of IGL is ongoing. From the study of this group we can infer that there are at least two different interactions involving the group members: one between NGC 5018 and NGC 5022, which generates the tails and ring-like structures detected in the light, and another between NGC 5022 and MCG-03-34-013 that have produced the HI tail. A minor merging event also happened in the formation history of NGC 5018 that have perturbed the inner structure of this galaxy.

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Galaxy evolution in groups. NGC 3447/NGC 3447A: the odd couple in LGG 225

Local Group Analogs (LGA) are galaxy associations dominated by few bright Spirals, reminiscent of the LG. The NGC3447/NGC3447A system, member of the LGG 225 group, a nearby LGA, is considered a physical pair: an intermediate luminosity late type spiral, NGC3447, and an irregular companion, NGC3447A, linked by a faint filament of matter. A ring-like structure in the NGC3447 outskirts is emphasised by UV observations. This work aims to contribute to the understanding of galaxy evolution in low density environments, favourable habitat to highly effective encounters. We performed a multi-wavelength analysis of the surface photometry of this system to derive spectral energy distribution and structural properties using UV and optical images. We also characterised the velocity field of the pair using new kinematic observations. All these data are used to constrain smooth particle hydrodynamic simulations with chemo-photometric implementation to shed light on the evolution of this system. Luminosity profiles are all consistent with the presence of a disc extending and including NGC3447A. The overall velocity field does not emphasise any significant rotation pattern, rather a small velocity gradient between NGC3447 and NGC3447A. Our simulation, detached from a large grid explored to best-fit the global properties of the system, suggests that this arises from an encounter between two halos of equal mass. NGC3447 and NGC3447A belong to the same halo, NGC3447A being a substructure of the same disk as NGC3447. The halo gravitational instability, enhanced by the encounter, fuels a long lived instability in this dark matter dominated disk, driving its morphology. This system may warn about a new class of "false pairs" and the potential danger of a misunderstanding of such objects in pair surveys that could produce a severe underestimate of the total mass of the system. (abridged)

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Galaxy evolution in nearby galaxy groups. III. A GALEX view of NGC 5846, the largest group in the local universe

We explore the co-evolution of galaxies in nearby groups (V < 3000 km/s) with a multi-wavelength approach. We analyze GALEX far-UV (FUV) and near-UV (NUV) imaging and SDSS u,g,r,i,z data of groups spanning a large range of dynamical phases. We characterize the photometric properties of spectroscopically-confirmed galaxy members and investigate the global properties of the groups through a dynamical analysis. Here we focus on NGC 5846, the third most massive association of Early-Type Galaxies (ETG) after the Virgo and Fornax clusters. The group, composed of 90 members, is dominated by ETGs (about 80 per cent), and among ETGs about 40\% are dwarfs. Results are compared with those obtained for three groups in the LeoII cloud, which are radically different both in member-galaxy population and dynamical properties. The FUV-NUV cumulative colour distribution and the normalized UV luminosity function (LF) significantly differ due to the different fraction of late-type galaxy population. The UV LF of NGC 5846 resembles that of the Virgo cluster, however our analysis suggests that star-formation episodes are still occurring in most of the group galaxies, including ETGs. The NUV-i colour distribution, the optical-UV colour-colour diagram, and NUV-r vs. Mr colour-magnitude relation suggest that the gas contribution cannot be neglected in the evolution of ETG-type group members. Our analysis highlights that NGC~5846 is still in an active phase of its evolution, notwithstanding the dominance of dwarf and bright ETGs and its virialized configuration.

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Building gas rings and rejuvenating S0 galaxies through minor mergers

We investigate the effects of minor mergers between an S0 galaxy and a gas-rich satellite galaxy, by means of N-body/smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) simulations. The satellite galaxy is initially on a nearly parabolic orbit and undergoes several periapsis passages before being completely stripped. In most simulations, a portion of the stripped gas forms a warm dense gas ring in the S0 galaxy, with a radius of ~6-13 kpc and a mass of ~10^7 solar masses (Msun). The ring is generally short-lived (<~3 Gyr) if it forms from prograde encounters, while it can live for more than 6 Gyr if it is born from counter-rotating or non-coplanar interactions. The gas ring keeps memory of the initial orbit of the satellite galaxy: it is corotating (counter-rotating) with the stars of the disc of the S0 galaxy, if it originates from prograde (retrograde) satellite orbits. Furthermore, the ring is coplanar with the disc of the S0 galaxy only if the satellite's orbit was coplanar, while it lies on a plane that is inclined with respect to the disc of the S0 galaxy by the same inclination angle as the orbital plane of the satellite galaxy. The fact that we form polar rings as long-lived and as massive as co-planar rings suggests that rings can form in S0 galaxies even without strong bar resonances. Star formation up to 0.01 Msun yr^-1 occurs for >6 Gyr in the central parts of the S0 galaxy as a consequence of the interaction. We discuss the implications of our simulations for the rejuvenation of S0 galaxies in the local Universe.

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The UV window on counter rotating ETGs: insight from SPH simulations with chemo-photometric implementation

The Galaxy Evolution Explorer (GALEX) detected ultraviolet emission in about 50% of multi-spin early-type galaxies (ETGs), suggesting the occurrence of a recent rejuvenation episode connected to the formation of these kinematical features. With the aim at investigating the complex evolutionary scenario leading to the formation of counter rotating ETGs (CR-ETGs) we use our Smooth Particle Hydrodynamic (SPH) code with chemo-photometric implementation. We discuss here the UV evolutionary path of two CR-ETGs, NGC 3593 and NGC 5173, concurrently best fitting their global observed properties, i.e., morphology, dynamics, as well as their total B-band absolute magnitude and spectral energy distribution (SED) extended over three orders of magnitude in wavelength. These simulations correspond to our predictions about the target evolution which we follow in the color-magnitude diagram (CMD), near-UV (NUV) versus r-band absolute magnitude, as a powerful diagnostic tool to emphasize rejuvenation episodes.

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The UV view of multi spin galaxies: insight from SPH simulations

The UV images of GALEX revealed that ~30% of Early Type Galaxies (ETG) show UV emission indicating a rejuvenation episode. In ETGs with multiple spin components this percentage increases at 50%. We present here the characteristics of this sample and our smooth particle hydrodynamic (SPH) simulations with chemo-photometric implementation that provide dynamical and morphological information together with the spectral energy distribution (SED) at each evolutionary stage. We show our match of the global properties of two ETGs (e.g. NGC 3626 and NGC 5173). For these galaxies we can trace their evolutionary path.

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The ($NUV-r$) vs. $M_r$ as a tracer of early-type galaxies evolution in USGC U376 and LGG 225 groups

With the aim of tracing back the evolution of galaxies in nearby groups we use smooth particle hydrodynamical (SPH) simulations with chemo-photometric implementation. Here we focus on the evolution of the early-type members (Es and S0s, ETGs hereafter) in two groups, USGC U376 and LGG 225, both in the Leo cloud. We use the near-UV (NUV)-optical rest-frame $NUV-r$ versus $M_r$ color magnitude diagram to follow their evolution, from the blue cloud (BC) to the red sequence (RS), through the green valley (GV). ETGs brighter than $M_r=-21$ mag are older than 13 Gyr and spend up to 10 Gyr of their overall evolutionary time in the BC before they reach the RS migrating through the GV. Fainter ETGs are younger, of about 2 Gyr on average, and evolve for about 7-8 Gyr along the BC. The turn-off occurs at z ~ 0.3-0.4. Therefore these ETGs spend up to 3-5 Gyr crossing the GV; UGC 06324, the faintest ETG in the sample, still is in the GV. The mechanism driving their evolution is gravitational, due to merging and/or interaction. Our SPH simulations suggest that ETG members of these groups evolved toward the RS before and during the group collapse phase. This result is consistent with the dynamical analysis of both groups showing that they are not yet virialized.

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