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Rolf Kuiper

Publications and source records attributed to Rolf Kuiper.

At least 91 records · Page 5Linked to original sources
arXiv2016

Composite biasing in Monte Carlo radiative transfer

Biasing or importance sampling is a powerful technique in Monte Carlo radiative transfer, and can be applied in different forms to increase the accuracy and efficiency of simulations. One of the drawbacks of the use of biasing is the potential introduction of large weight factors. We discuss a general strategy, composite biasing, to suppress the appearance of large weight factors. We use this composite biasing approach for two different problems faced by current state-of-the-art Monte Carlo radiative transfer codes: the generation of photon packages from multiple components, and the penetration of radiation through high optical depth barriers. In both cases, the implementation of the relevant algorithms is trivial and does not interfere with any other optimisation techniques. Through simple test models, we demonstrate the general applicability, accuracy and efficiency of the composite biasing approach. In particular, for the penetration of high optical depths, the gain in efficiency is spectacular for the specific problems that we consider: in simulations with composite path length stretching, high accuracy results are obtained even for simulations with modest numbers of photon packages, while simulations without biasing cannot reach convergence, even with a huge number of photon packages.

astro-ph.IM↗
arXiv2016

Dynamical friction for supersonic motion in a homogeneous gaseous medium

The supersonic motion of gravitating objects through a gaseous medium constitutes a classical problem in theoretical astrophysics. Its application covers a broad range of objects and scales from planets up to galaxies. Especially the dynamical friction, caused by the forming wake behind the object, plays an important role for the dynamics of the system. To calculate the dynamical friction, standard formulae, based on linear theory are often used. It is our goal to check the general validity of these formulae and provide suitable expressions for the dynamical friction acting on the moving object, based on the basic physical parameters of the problem. We perform sequences of high resolution numerical studies of rigid bodies moving supersonically through a homogeneous medium, and calculate the total drag acting on the object, which is the sum of gravitational and hydro drag. We study cases without gravity with purely hydrodynamical drag, as well as gravitating objects. From the final equilibrium state of the simulations, we compute for gravitating objects the dynamical friction by direct numerical integration of the gravitational pull acting on the embedded object. The numerical experiments confirm the known scaling laws for the dependence of the dynamical friction on the basic physical parameters as derived in earlier semi-analytical studies. As a new important result we find that the shock's stand-off distance is revealed as the minimum spatial interaction scale of dynamical friction. Below this radius, the gas settles into a hydrostatic state, which causes no net gravitational pull onto the moving body. Finally, we derive an analytic estimate for the stand-off distance that can be used to calculate the dynamical friction force.

astro-ph.GA↗
arXiv2015

A Keplerian-like disk around the forming O-type star AFGL 4176

We present Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) line and continuum observations at 1.2mm with ~0.3" resolution that uncover a Keplerian-like disk around the forming O-type star AFGL 4176. The continuum emission from the disk at 1.21 mm (source mm1) has a deconvolved size of 870+/-110 AU x 330+/-300 AU and arises from a structure ~8 M_sun in mass, calculated assuming a dust temperature of 190 K. The first-moment maps, pixel-to-pixel line modeling, assuming local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE), and position-velocity diagrams of the CH3CN J=13-12 K-line emission all show a velocity gradient along the major axis of the source, coupled with an increase in velocity at small radii, consistent with Keplerian-like rotation. The LTE line modeling shows that where CH3CN J=13-12 is excited, the temperatures in the disk range from ~70 to at least 300 K and that the H2 column density peaks at 2.8x10^24 cm^-2. In addition, we present Atacama Pathfinder Experiment (APEX) 12CO observations which show a large-scale outflow from AFGL 4176 perpendicular to the major axis of mm1, supporting the disk interpretation. Finally, we present a radiative transfer model of a Keplerian disk surrounding an O7 star, with a disk mass and radius of 12 M_sun and 2000 AU, that reproduces the line and continuum data, further supporting our conclusion that our observations have uncovered a Keplerian disk around an O-type star.

astro-ph.SR↗
arXiv2014

Protostellar Outflows and Radiative Feedback from Massive Stars

We carry out radiation hydrodynamical simulations of the formation of massive stars in the super-Eddington regime including both their radiative feedback and protostellar outflows. The calculations start from a prestellar core of dusty gas and continue until the star stops growing. The accretion ends when the remnants of the core are ejected, mostly by the force of the direct stellar radiation in the polar direction and elsewhere by the reradiated thermal infrared radiation. How long the accretion persists depends on whether the protostellar outflows are present. We set the mass outflow rate to 1% of the stellar sink particle's accretion rate. The outflows open a bipolar cavity extending to the core's outer edge, through which the thermal radiation readily escapes. The radiative flux is funneled into the polar directions while the core's collapse proceeds near the equator. The outflow thus extends the "flashlight effect", or anisotropic radiation field, found in previous studies from the few hundred AU scale of the circumstellar disk up to the 0.1 parsec scale of the core. The core's flashlight effect allows core gas to accrete on the disk for longer, in the same way that the disk's flashlight effect allows disk gas to accrete on the star for longer. Thus although the protostellar outflows remove material near the core's poles, causing slower stellar growth over the first few free-fall times, they also enable accretion to go on longer in our calculations. The outflows ultimately lead to stars of somewhat higher mass.

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arXiv2014

Hydrodynamics of Embedded Planets' First Atmospheres. I. A Centrifugal Growth Barrier for 2D Flows

In the core accretion paradigm of planet formation, gas giants only form a massive atmosphere after their progenitors exceeded a threshold mass: the critical core mass. Most (exo)planets, being smaller and rock/ice-dominated, never crossed this line. Nevertheless, they were massive enough to attract substantial amounts of gas from the disc, while their atmospheres remained in pressure-equilibrium with the disc. Our goal is to characterise the hydrodynamical properties of the atmospheres of such embedded planets and their implication for their (long-term) evolution. In this paper -- the first in series -- we start to investigate the properties of an isothermal and inviscid flow past a small, embedded planet by conducting local, 2D hydrodynamical simulations. Using the PLUTO code we confirm that the flow is steady and bound. This steady outcome is most apparent for the log-polar grid (with the grid spacing proportional to the distance from the planet). For low-mass planets, Cartesian grids are somewhat less efficient as they have difficulty to follow the circular, large speeds in the deep atmosphere. Relating the amount of rotation to the gas fraction of the atmosphere, we find that more massive atmospheres rotate faster -- a finding consistent with Kelvin's circulation theorem. Rotation therefore limits the amount of gas that planets can acquire from the nebula. Dependent on the Toomre-Q parameter of the circumstellar disc, the planet's atmosphere will reach Keplerian rotation before self-gravity starts to become important.

astro-ph.EP↗
arXiv2014

Hydrodynamics of Embedded Planets' First Atmospheres. II. A Rapid Recycling of Atmospheric Gas

Following Paper I we investigate the properties of atmospheres that form around small protoplanets embedded in a protoplanetary disc by conducting hydrodynamical simulations. These are now extended to three dimensions, employing a spherical grid centred on the planet. Compression of gas is shown to reduce rotational motions. Contrasting the 2D case, no clear boundary demarcates bound atmospheric gas from disc material; instead, we find an open system where gas enters the Bondi sphere at high latitudes and leaves through the midplane regions, or, vice versa, when the disc gas rotates sub-Keplerian. The simulations do not converge to a time-independent solution; instead, the atmosphere is characterized by a time-varying velocity field. Of particular interest is the timescale to replenish the atmosphere by nebular gas, $t_\mathrm{replenish}$. It is shown that the replenishment rate, $M_\mathrm{atm}/t_\mathrm{replenish}$, can be understood in terms of a modified Bondi accretion rate, $\sim$$R_\mathrm{Bondi}^2ρ_\mathrm{gas}v_\mathrm{Bondi}$, where $v_\mathrm{Bondi}$ is set by the Keplerian shear or the magnitude of the sub-Keplerian motion of the gas, whichever is larger. In the inner disk, the atmosphere of embedded protoplanets replenishes on a timescale that is shorter than the Kelvin-Helmholtz contraction (or cooling) timescale. As a result, atmospheric gas can no longer contract and the growth of these atmospheres terminates. Future work must confirm whether these findings continue to apply when the (thermodynamical) idealizations employed in this study are relaxed. But if shown to be broadly applicable, replenishment of atmospheric gas provides a natural explanation for the preponderance of gas-rich but rock-dominant planets like super-Earths and mini-Neptunes.

astro-ph.EP↗
arXiv2014

A general hybrid radiation transport scheme for star formation simulations on an adaptive grid

Radiation feedback plays a crucial role in the process of star formation. In order to simulate the thermodynamic evolution of disks, filaments, and the molecular gas surrounding clusters of young stars, we require an efficient and accurate method for solving the radiation transfer problem. We describe the implementation of a hybrid radiation transport scheme in the adaptive grid-based FLASH general magnetohydrodynamics code. The hybrid scheme splits the radiative transport problem into a raytracing step and a diffusion step. The raytracer captures the first absorption event, as stars irradiate their environments, while the evolution of the diffuse component of the radiation field is handled by a flux-limited diffusion (FLD) solver. We demonstrate the accuracy of our method through a variety of benchmark tests including the irradiation of a static disk, subcritical and supercritical radiative shocks, and thermal energy equilibration. We also demonstrate the capability of our method for casting shadows and calculating gas and dust temperatures in the presence of multiple stellar sources. Our method enables radiation-hydrodynamic studies of young stellar objects, protostellar disks, and clustered star formation in magnetized, filamentary environments.

astro-ph.GA↗
arXiv2013

On the simultaneous evolution of massive protostars and their host cores

Studies of the evolution of massive protostars and the evolution of their host molecular cloud cores are commonly treated as separate problems. However, interdependencies between the two can be significant. Here, we study the simultaneous evolution of massive protostars and their host molecular cores using a multi-dimensional radiation hydrodynamics code that incorporates the effects of the thermal pressure and radiative acceleration feedback of the centrally forming protostar. The evolution of the massive protostar is computed simultaneously using the stellar evolution code STELLAR, modified to include the effects of variable accretion. The interdependencies are studied in three different collapse scenarios. For comparison, stellar evolutionary tracks at constant accretion rates and the evolution of the host cores using pre-computed stellar evolutionary tracks are computed. The resulting interdependencies of the protostellar evolution and the evolution of the environment are extremely diverse and depend on the order of events, in particular the time of circumstellar accretion disk formation with respect to the onset of the bloating phase of the star. Feedback mechanisms affect the instantaneous accretion rate and the protostar's radius, temperature and luminosity on timescales equal or smaller than 5 kyr, corresponding to the accretion timescale and Kelvin-Helmholtz contraction timescale, respectively. Nevertheless, it is possible to approximate the overall protostellar evolution in many cases by pre-computed stellar evolutionary tracks assuming appropriate constant average accretion rates.

astro-ph.SR↗
arXiv2013

The reliability of approximate radiation transport methods for irradiated disk studies

Context: Dynamical studies of irradiated circumstellar disks require an accurate treatment of radiation transport to, for example, properly determine cooling and fragmentation properties. The radiation transport algorithm should be as fast as the (magneto-) hydrodynamics to allow for an efficient usage of computing resources. Methods: We use a setup of a central star and a slightly flared circumstellar disk. We perform simulations for a wide range of optical depths of the disk's midplane from tau(550nm) = 0.1 up to tau(810nm) = 1 million. We check the accuracy of the gray flux-limited diffusion (FLD) approximation and a gray and frequency-dependent ray-tracing plus FLD approximation. Results: 1. For moderate optical depths, a gray approximation of the stellar irradiation yields a slightly hotter inner rim and a slightly cooler midplane of the disk at larger radii, but is otherwise in agreement with the frequency-dependent treatment. 2. The gray FLD approximation fails to compute an appropriate temperature profile in all regimes of optical depth; the maximum deviations to the comparison runs are 50 percent in the optically thin and up to 280 percent in the optically thick limit. For low optical depth, the isotropic assumption within the FLD method yields a too steep decrease of the radial temperature slope. For higher optical depths, the FLD approximation does not reproduce the shadow behind the optically thick inner rim of the circumstellar disk, yielding artificial heating at larger disk radii. 3. The frequency-dependent RT + gray FLD approximation yields remarkable accuracy for the whole range of optical depths. Conclusions: The high accuracy of the frequency-dependent hybrid radiation transport algorithm makes this method ideally suited for (magneto-) hydrodynamical studies of irradiated circumstellar disks.

astro-ph.SR↗
arXiv2012

A solution to the radiation pressure problem in the formation of massive stars

We review our recent studies demonstrating that the radiation pressure problem in the formation of massive stars can be circumvented via an anisotropy of the thermal radiation field. Such an anisotropy naturally establishes with the formation of a circumstellar disk. The required angular momentum transport within the disk can be provided by developing gravitational torques. Radiative Rayleigh-Taylor instabilities in the cavity regions - as previously suggested in the literature - are not required and are shown to be not occurring in the context of massive star formation.

astro-ph.SR↗
arXiv2012

On the effects of optically thick gas (disks) around massive stars

Numerical simulations have shown that the often cited radiation pressure barrier to accretion onto massive stars can be circumvented, when the radiation field is highly anisotropic in the presence of a circumstellar accretion disk with high optical depth. Here, these studies of the so-called flashlight effect are expanded by including the opacity of the innermost dust-free but potentially optically thick gas regions around forming massive stars. In addition to frequency-dependent opacities for the dust grains, we use temperature- and density-dependent Planck- and Rosseland mean opacities for the gas. The simulations show that the innermost dust-free parts of the accretion disks are optically thick to the stellar radiation over a substantial fraction of the solid angle above and below the disk's midplane. The temperature in the shielded disk region decreases faster with radius than in a comparison simulation with a lower constant gas opacity, and the dust sublimation front is shifted to smaller radii. The shielding by the dust-free gas in the inner disk thus contributes to an enhanced flashlight effect, which ultimately results in a smaller opening angle of the radiation pressure driven outflow and in a much longer timescale of sustained feeding of the circumstellar disk by the molecular cloud core. We conclude that it is necessary to properly account for the opacity of the inner dust-free disk regions around forming massive stars in order to correctly assess the effectiveness of the flashlight effect, the opening angle of radiation pressure driven outflows, and the lifetime and morphological evolution of the accretion disk.

astro-ph.SR↗
arXiv2011

On the stability of radiation-pressure-dominated cavities

Context: When massive stars exert a radiation pressure onto their environment that is higher than their gravitational attraction, they launch a radiation-pressure-driven outflow. It has been claimed that a radiative Rayleigh-Taylor instability should lead to the collapse of the outflow cavity and foster the growth of massive stars. Aims: We investigate the stability of idealized radiation-pressure-dominated cavities, focusing on its dependence on the radiation transport approach for the stellar radiation feedback. Methods: We compare two different methods for stellar radiation feedback: gray flux-limited diffusion (FLD) and ray-tracing (RT). We also derive simple analytical models to support our findings. Results: Only the FLD cases lead to prominent instability in the cavity shell. The RT cases do not show such instability. The gray FLD method underestimates the opacity at the location of the cavity shell and leads to extended epochs of marginal Eddington equilibrium in the cavity shell, making them prone to the radiative Rayleigh-Taylor instability. In the RT cases, the radiation pressure exceeds gravity by 1-2 orders of magnitude. The radiative Rayleigh-Taylor instability is then consequently suppressed. Conclusions: Treating the stellar irradiation in the gray FLD approximation underestimates the radiative forces acting on the cavity shell. This can lead artificially to situations that are affected by the radiative Rayleigh-Taylor instability. The proper treatment of direct stellar irradiation by massive stars is crucial for the stability of radiation-pressure-dominated cavities.

astro-ph.SR↗
arXiv2011

Three-dimensional simulation of massive star formation in the disk accretion scenario

The most massive stars can form via standard disk accretion - despite of the radiation pressure generated - due to the fact that the massive accretion disk yields a strong anisotropy in the radiation field, releasing most of the radiation pressure perpendicular to the disk accretion flow. Here, we analyze the self-gravity of the forming circumstellar disk as the potential major driver of the angular momentum transport in such massive disks responsible for the high accretion rates needed for the formation of massive stars. For this purpose, we perform self-gravity radiation hydrodynamics simulations of the collapse of massive pre-stellar cores. The formation and evolution of the resulting circumstellar disk is investigated in 1.) axially symmetric simulations using an alpha-shear-viscosity prescription and 2.) a three-dimensional simulation, in which the angular momentum transport is provided self-consistently by developing gravitational torques in the self-gravitating accretion disk. The simulation series of different strength of the alpha-viscosity shows that the accretion history of the forming star is mostly independent of the alpha-viscosity-parameter. The accretion history of the three-dimensional run driven by self-gravity is more time-dependent than the viscous disk evolution in axial symmetry. The mean accretion rate, i.e. the stellar mass growth, is nearly identical to the alpha-viscosity models. We conclude that the development of gravitational torques in self-gravitating disks around forming massive stars provides a self-consistent mechanism to efficiently transport the angular momentum to outer disk radii. Also the formation of the most massive stars can therefore be understood in the standard accretion disk scenario.

astro-ph.SR↗
arXiv2011

Radiation pressure feedback in the formation of massive stars

We investigate the radiation pressure feedback in the formation of massive stars in 1, 2, and 3D radiation hydrodynamics simulations of the collapse of massive pre-stellar cores. In contrast to previous research, we consider frequency dependent stellar radiation feedback, resolve the dust sublimation front in the vicinity of the forming star down to 1.27 AU, compute the evolution for several 10^5 yrs covering the whole accretion phase of the forming star, and perform a comprehensive survey of the parameter space. The most fundamental result is that the formation of a massive accretion disk in slowly rotating cores preserves a high anisotropy in the radiation field. The thermal radiation escapes through the optically thin atmosphere, effectively diminishing the radiation pressure feedback onto the accretion flow. Gravitational torques in the self-gravitating disk drive a sufficiently high accretion rate to overcome the residual radiation pressure. Simultaneously, the radiation pressure launches an outflow in the bipolar direction, which grows in angle with time and releases a substantial fraction of the initial core mass from the star-disk system. Summarized, for an initial core mass of 60, 120, 240, and 480 Msol these mechanisms allow the star to grow up to 28.2, 56.5, 92.6, and at least 137.2 Msol respectively.

astro-ph.SR↗
arXiv2010

The role of accretion disks in the formation of massive stars

We present radiation hydrodynamics simulations of the collapse of massive pre-stellar cores. We treat frequency dependent radiative feedback from stellar evolution and accretion luminosity at a numerical resolution down to 1.27 AU. In the 2D approximation of axially symmetric simulations, it is possible for the first time to simulate the whole accretion phase of several 10^5 yr for the forming massive star and to perform a comprehensive scan of the parameter space. Our simulation series show evidently the necessity to incorporate the dust sublimation front to preserve the high shielding property of massive accretion disks. Our disk accretion models show a persistent high anisotropy of the corresponding thermal radiation field, yielding to the growth of the highest-mass stars ever formed in multi-dimensional radiation hydrodynamics simulations. Non-axially symmetric effects are not necessary to sustain accretion. The radiation pressure launches a stable bipolar outflow, which grows in angle with time as presumed from observations. For an initial mass of the pre-stellar host core of 60, 120, 240, and 480 Msol the masses of the final stars formed in our simulations add up to 28.2, 56.5, 92.6, and at least 137.2 Msol respectively.

astro-ph.SR↗
arXiv2010

Circumventing the radiation pressure barrier in the formation of massive stars via disk accretion

We present radiation hydrodynamics simulations of the collapse of massive pre-stellar cores. We treat frequency dependent radiative feedback from stellar evolution and accretion luminosity at a numerical resolution down to 1.27 AU. In the 2D approximation of axially symmetric simulations, it is possible for the first time to simulate the whole accretion phase (up to the end of the accretion disk epoch) for the forming massive star and to perform a broad scan of the parameter space. Our simulation series show evidently the necessity to incorporate the dust sublimation front to preserve the high shielding property of massive accretion disks. While confirming the upper mass limit of spherically symmetric accretion, our disk accretion models show a persistent high anisotropy of the corresponding thermal radiation field. This yields to the growth of the highest-mass stars ever formed in multi-dimensional radiation hydrodynamics simulations, far beyond the upper mass limit of spherical accretion. Non-axially symmetric effects are not necessary to sustain accretion. The radiation pressure launches a stable bipolar outflow, which grows in angle with time as presumed from observations. For an initial mass of the pre-stellar host core of 60, 120, 240, and 480 Msun the masses of the final stars formed in our simulations add up to 28.2, 56.5, 92.6, and at least 137.2 Msun respectively.

astro-ph.SR↗
arXiv2010

Fast and accurate frequency-dependent radiation transport for hydrodynamics simulations in massive star formation

Context: Radiative feedback plays a crucial role in the formation of massive stars. The implementation of a fast and accurate description of the proceeding thermodynamics in pre-stellar cores and evolving accretion disks is therefore a main effort in current hydrodynamics simulations. Aims: We introduce our newly implemented three-dimensional frequency dependent radiation transport algorithm for hydrodynamics simulations of spatial configurations with a dominant central source. Methods: The module combines the advantage of the speed of an approximate Flux Limited Diffusion (FLD) solver with the high accuracy of a frequency dependent first order ray-tracing routine. Results: We prove the viability of the scheme in a standard radiation benchmark test compared to a full frequency dependent Monte-Carlo based radiative transfer code. The setup includes a central star, a circumstellar flared disk, as well as an envelope. The test is performed for different optical depths. Considering the frequency dependence of the stellar irradiation, the temperature distributions can be described precisely in the optically thin, thick, and irradiated transition regions. Resulting radiative forces onto dust grains are reproduced with high accuracy. The achievable parallel speedup of the method imposes no restriction on further radiative (magneto-) hydrodynamics simulations. Conclusions: The proposed approximate radiation transport method enables frequency dependent radiation hydrodynamics studies of the evolution of pre-stellar cores and circumstellar accretion disks around an evolving massive star in a highly efficient and accurate manner.

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