arXiv subjects

Sarah Turner

Publications and source records attributed to Sarah Turner.

5 recordsLinked to original sources

arXiv2025

Metaphor identification using large language models: A comparison of RAG, prompt engineering, and fine-tuning

Metaphor is a pervasive feature of discourse and a powerful lens for examining cognition, emotion, and ideology. Large-scale analysis, however, has been constrained by the need for manual annotation due to the context-sensitive nature of metaphor. This study investigates the potential of large language models (LLMs) to automate metaphor identification in full texts. We compare three methods: (i) retrieval-augmented generation (RAG), where the model is provided with a codebook and instructed to annotate texts based on its rules and examples; (ii) prompt engineering, where we design task-specific verbal instructions; and (iii) fine-tuning, where the model is trained on hand-coded texts to optimize performance. Within prompt engineering, we test zero-shot, few-shot, and chain-of-thought strategies. Our results show that state-of-the-art closed-source LLMs can achieve high accuracy, with fine-tuning yielding a median F1 score of 0.79. A comparison of human and LLM outputs reveals that most discrepancies are systematic, reflecting well-known grey areas and conceptual challenges in metaphor theory. We propose that LLMs can be used to at least partly automate metaphor identification and can serve as a testbed for developing and refining metaphor identification protocols and the theory that underpins them.

cs.CL↗

arXiv2023

It's more than just money: The real-world harms from ransomware attacks

As cyber-attacks continue to increase in frequency and sophistication, organisations must be better prepared to face the reality of an incident. Any organisational plan that intends to be successful at managing security risks must clearly understand the harm (i.e., negative impact) and the various parties affected in the aftermath of an attack. To this end, this article conducts a novel exploration into the multitude of real-world harms that can arise from cyber-attacks, with a particular focus on ransomware incidents given their current prominence. This exploration also leads to the proposal of a new, robust methodology for modelling harms from such incidents. We draw on publicly-available case data on high-profile ransomware incidents to examine the types of harm that emerge at various stages after a ransomware attack and how harms (e.g., an offline enterprise server) may trigger other negative, potentially more substantial impacts for stakeholders (e.g., the inability for a customer to access their social welfare benefits or bank account). Prominent findings from our analysis include the identification of a notable set of social/human harms beyond the business itself (and beyond the financial payment of a ransom) and a complex web of harms that emerge after attacks regardless of the industry sector. We also observed that deciphering the full extent and sequence of harms can be a challenging undertaking because of the lack of complete data available. This paper consequently argues for more transparency on ransomware harms, as it would lead to a better understanding of the realities of these incidents to the benefit of organisations and society more generally.

cs.CR↗

arXiv2022

"You Just Assume It Is In There, I Guess": UK Families' Application And Knowledge Of Smart Home Cyber Security

The Internet of Things (IoT) is increasingly present in many family homes, yet it is unclear precisely how well families understand the cyber security threats and risks of using such devices, and how possible it is for them to educate themselves on these topics. Using a survey of 553 parents and interviews with 25 families in the UK, we find that families do not consider home IoT devices to be significantly different in terms of threats than more traditional home computers, and believe the major risks to be largely mitigated through consumer protection regulation. As a result, parents focus on teaching being careful with devices to prolong device life use, exposing their families to additional security risks and modeling incorrect security behaviors to their children. This is a risk for the present and also one for the future, as children are not taught about the IoT, and appropriate cyber security management of such devices, at school. We go on to suggest that steps must be taken by manufacturers and governments or appropriate trusted institutions to improve the cyber security knowledge and behaviors of both adults and children in relation to the use of home IoT devices.

cs.CR↗

arXiv2021

It was hard to find the words: Using an Autoethnographic Diary Study to Understand the Difficulties of Smart Home Cyber Security Practices

This study considers how well an autoethnographic diary study helps as a method to explore why families might struggle in the application of strong and cohesive cyber security measures within the smart home. Combining two human-computer interaction (HCI) research methods - the relatively unstructured process of autoethnography and the more structured diary study - allowed the first author to reflect on the differences between researchers or experts, and everyday users. Having a physical set of structured diary prompts allowed for a period of 'thinking as writing', enabling reflection upon how having expert knowledge may or may not translate into useful knowledge when dealing with everyday life. This is particularly beneficial in the context of home cyber security use, where first-person narratives have not made up part of the research corpus to date, despite a consistent recognition that users struggle to apply strong cyber security methods in personal contexts. The framing of the autoethnographic diary study contributes a very simple, but extremely powerful, tool for anyone with more knowledge than the average user of any technology, enabling the expert to reflect upon how they themselves have fared when using, understanding and discussing the technology in daily life.

cs.HC↗

arXiv2021

When Googling it doesn't work: The challenge of finding security advice for smart home devices

As users increasingly introduce Internet-connected devices into their homes, having access to accurate and relevant cyber security information is a fundamental means of ensuring safe use. Given the paucity of information provided with many devices at the time of purchase, this paper engages in a critical study of the type of advice that home Internet of Things (IoT) or smart device users might be presented with on the Internet to inform their cyber security practices. We base our research on an analysis of 427 web pages from 234 organisations that present information on security threats and relevant cyber security advice. The results show that users searching online for information are subject to an enormous range of advice and news from various sources with differing levels of credibility and relevance. With no clear explanation of how a user may assess the threats as they are pertinent to them, it becomes difficult to understand which pieces of advice would be the most effective in their situation. Recommendations are made to improve the clarity, consistency and availability of guidance from recognised sources to improve user access and understanding.

cs.CR↗