arXiv subjects

Satyendra Thoudam

Publications and source records attributed to Satyendra Thoudam.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

arXiv2026

Anomalous Air Showers and What They Reveal About Hadronic Interactions and Cosmic-ray Masses

The identification of the sources and acceleration mechanisms of cosmic rays require precise measurements of their mass composition. Currently, the most reliable method is to measure the atmospheric depth at which cosmic ray air showers in our atmosphere reach their maximum (\Xmax). However, the hadronic interaction properties that govern the longitudinal development of air showers are not precisely known, which is a major source of systematic uncertainty on the mass composition. SKA-Low will observe cosmic rays in the 10$^{16}$ - 10$^{18}$ eV energy range with unprecedented resolution and bandwidth. This allows for a much more detailed reconstruction of the longitudinal shower evolution, which can be used to gain better understanding of the hadronic interactions, as well as the primary mass composition. After the first interaction of the cosmic ray with an atom in an air molecule, the secondary particles still carry a significant fraction of the total energy. When one of these particle travels very far before interacting again, it produces a sub-shower that can be recognized as a secondary bump in the longitudinal profile. Simulations have demonstrated that SKA-Low can resolve such double bump profiles by virtue of its high antenna density and broad bandwidth. In this chapter, we demonstrate how double-bump showers and other anomalous longitudinal developments can be used to constrain hadronic interaction properties, and to determine the mass composition of cosmic rays in the Galactic-to-extragalactic transition region.

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arXiv2026

Measuring High-Energy Cosmic Particles with the SKA

The origin of high-energy cosmic rays remain one of astrophysics' greatest unsolved mysteries. SKA-Low will be able to measure air showers initiated by cosmic rays with unprecedented precision in the PeV - EeV energy range, covering the critical transition region between Galactic and extragalactic sources. SKA-Low's densely instrumented core and broad bandwidth will allow for measurements of individual air showers with a level of detail unmatched by any existing or planned detector. The depth of shower maximum, the primary mass-sensitive observable, will be reconstructed with a resolution of better than 8~g/cm$^2$, a significant improvement over existing methods. Additionally, new reconstruction methods are expected to enable full air shower reconstruction across a wide energy range, down to PeV levels. At these energies, efficient photon/hadron separation may offer an opportunity to measure PeV gamma-ray air showers. Furthermore, SKA-Low opens a window into studying high-energy hadronic interactions, including via the unique channel of anomalous air showers. This combination of measurements provides a unique opportunity to investigate the origins and physics of high-energy cosmic rays. A dedicated particle detector array will provide triggered readout of raw antenna-level voltage buffers, enabling fully commensal cosmic-ray observations alongside regular operations. We outline our science case and discuss the observational strategy, signal properties and detector design underpinning these measurements. We also summarize the accompanying book chapters, which address composition measurements in the Galactic-to-extragalactic transition region, next-generation interferometric reconstruction techniques, hadronic interaction physics through anomalous air showers, the prospects for detecting PeV gamma-rays from Galactic sources, and the related project of imaging lightning using SKA-Low.

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arXiv2026

Using SKA-Low to Detect PeV Gamma-rays from Galactic Sources

Detecting so called PeVatrons is considered one of the prime goals of $γ$-ray astronomy. PeVatrons are astrophysical objects in the Galaxy that are sources of cosmic rays exceeding PeV ($10^{15}$ eV) energies, the highest in our Galaxy. Their nature is unknown as of now, with some candidates reaching barely above PeV energies just having been identified. Serendipitously, the energy threshold of air shower detection using radio emission, has been proven at 50 PeV. There is a case to be made that SKA-Low with its unprecedented number of antennas, can reach lower in energy, while the size of the core is sufficiently large provide a significant effective area to measure PeV fluxes. While this promises a novel angle towards understanding the cosmic ray accelerators in our Galaxy, it also would be the first detection of $γ$-ray air showers using radio emission.

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arXiv2026

Interferometric Analysis of Air-shower Radio Emission in the Near Field with an Information Field Theory Approach

Current reconstruction techniques for air-shower radio emission generated by cosmic rays have shown great success, having been applied to several radio detectors over the last decade. Nevertheless, they are limited by their high computational cost, simplified approximations, and signal information used for reconstruction. As such, advanced analyses are required to not only be able to perform a holistic reconstruction of all parameters, but also to conduct near-field interferometry of the air shower. This can be achieved through Information Field Theory (IFT), an imaging reconstruction framework based on Bayesian inference that can extract all available information within the signal to infer distributions of field-like quantities. In this chapter, we highlight current novel approaches that use IFT for air shower reconstruction, and the potential of their applicability towards SKA-Low.

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arXiv2026

Implications of a Cosmogenic Origin of KM3-230213A for Ultra-High-Energy Protons

A significant neutrino event with an estimated energy between $72\,\mathrm{PeV}$ and $2.6\,\mathrm{EeV}$ was recently observed by the KM3NeT experiment (KM3-230213A). When interpreted as cosmogenic in origin, this event can provide constraints on several phenomenological parameters of UHE proton sources. In this study, we present the best fit to the spectrum and composition of UHECRs that is consistent with multi-messenger constraints, including the detection of a single neutrino event by the KM3NeT detector in the energy range of KM3-230213A. From the best fit, we obtain the 68\% CL constraints on the parameters of a two-population model of UHECRs, comprising a mixed-composition population and a subdominant UHE proton population. Our results indicate that the detection of a single neutrino event in the energy range of KM3-230213A solely with the KM3NeT exposure requires strongly evolving UHE proton sources, consistent with high-luminosity active galactic nuclei. On the other hand, including the null observations from the Pierre Auger and IceCube observatories disfavors such strong evolution. In both cases, the observed proton fraction of UHECRs is primarily constrained by the composition data to be $\sim 20\%$ at $20\,\mathrm{EeV}$.

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arXiv2026

A Bayesian Method for Air-Shower Reconstruction using Information Field Theory

The radio detection of extensive air showers provides a powerful method for studying the origin of high-energy cosmic rays. The Low-Frequency Array (LOFAR) offers unprecedentedly detailed measurements of the radio emission footprint. However, fully exploiting this information requires advanced reconstruction techniques. In this paper, we introduce a novel framework for air shower reconstruction based on Bayesian inference and Information Field Theory (IFT). Our method is built on a fully differentiable forward model of the radio signal, which incorporates a physical emission parameterization and a precise wavefront model. Additionally, we augment this physical model with Gaussian processes to account for systematic uncertainties in both the signal fluence and arrival timing. By leveraging gradient information, our approach enables efficient (three orders of magnitude acceleration w.r.t.\ the legacy method) and robust inference of the underlying physical shower parameters, such as primary energy and the depth of shower maximum, $X_\text{max}$. This work provides not only point estimates but also a rigorous quantification of uncertainties. We achieve a resolution in $X_\text{max}$ of $25\,\mathrm{g/cm^2}$ and a radiation energy resolution of $12\%$ on simulations for LOFAR.

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arXiv2025

TeV spectral bump of cosmic-ray protons and helium nuclei: the role of nearby supernova remnants

The existence of nearby discrete cosmic-ray sources can lead to many interesting effects on the observed properties of cosmic rays. Recent measurements of cosmic rays with the CALET and the DAMPE experiments have revealed a bump-like new feature in the proton and helium spectra in the energy range of ~ (1-100) TeV/nucleon. The origin of the feature is not clearly understood. In this paper, considering an improved and more detailed analysis than previous works, and using an updated age and distance estimates of nearby supernova remnants along with an energy-dependent escape process for cosmic rays from the remnants, we show that the spectral bump can be explained by the contribution of cosmic rays from the nearby supernova remnants, in particular, the Vela remnant. We also show that the contribution from the nearby remnants agrees well with the observed spectra of the heavier cosmic-ray elements from carbon to iron as well as with the measured all-particle cosmic-ray spectrum beyond the knee region when combined with a background flux of cosmic rays originating from distant supernova remnants.

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arXiv2024

Origin of the break in the cosmic-ray electron plus positron spectrum at ~ 1 TeV

Recent measurements of the cosmic-ray electron plus positron spectrum by several experiments have confirmed the presence of a break at $\sim\,1$ TeV. The origin of the break is still not clearly understood. In this work, we explore different possibilities for the origin which include an electron source spectrum with a broken power-law, a power-law with an exponential or super-exponential cut-offs and the absence of potential nearby cosmic-ray sources. Based on the observed electron plus positron data from the DAMPE and the H.E.S.S experiments, and considering supernova remnants as the main sources of cosmic rays in the Galaxy, we find statistical evidence in favour of the scenario with a broken power-law source spectrum with the best-fit source parameters obtained as $Γ=2.39$ for the source spectral index, $E_0\approx 1.6$ TeV for the break energy and $f=1.59\times 10^{48}$ ergs for the amount of supernova kinetic energy injected into cosmic-ray electrons. Such a power-law break in the spectrum has been predicted for electrons confined inside supernova remnants after acceleration via diffusive shock acceleration process, and also indicated by the multi-wavelength study of supernova remnants. All these evidences have shown that the observed spectral break provides a strong indication of a direct link between cosmic-ray electrons and their sources. Our findings further show that electrons must undergo spectral changes while escaping the source region in order to reconcile the difference between the spectral index of electrons observed inside supernova remnants and that obtained from Galactic cosmic-ray propagation studies.

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arXiv2023

Between the cosmic-ray `knee' and the `ankle': Contribution from star clusters

We show that massive young star clusters may be possible candidates that can accelerate Galactic cosmic rays (CRs) in the range of $10^7\hbox{--}10^9$ GeV (between the `knee' and `ankle'). Various plausible scenarios such as acceleration at the wind termination shock (WTS), supernova shocks inside these young star clusters, etc. have been proposed,since it is difficult to accelerate particles up to the $10^7\hbox{--}10^9$ GeV range in the standard paradigm of CR acceleration in supernova remnants. We consider a model for the production of different nuclei in CRs from massive stellar winds using the observed distribution of young star clusters in the Galactic plane. We present a detailed calculation of CR transport in the Galaxy, taking into account the effect of diffusion, interaction losses during propagation, and particle re-acceleration by old supernova remnants to determine the all-particle CR spectrum. Using the maximum energy estimate from the Hillas criterion, we argue that a young massive star cluster can accelerate protons up to a few tens of PeV. Upon comparison with the observed data, our model requires a CR source spectrum with an exponential cutoff of $5\times 10^7 Z$ GeV ($50\,Z$~PeV) from these clusters together with a cosmic-ray injection fraction of $\sim 5\%$ of the wind kinetic energy. We discuss the possibility of achieving these requirements in star clusters, and the associated uncertainties, in the context of considering star clusters as the natural accelerator of the `second component' of Galactic cosmic rays.

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arXiv2021

Studies of Gamma-Ray Shower Reconstruction Using Deep Learning

The Cosmic Multiperspective Event Tracker (CoMET) R&D project aims to optimize the techniques for the detection of soft-spectrum sources through very-high-energy gamma-ray observations using particle detectors (called ALTO detectors), and atmospheric Cherenkov light collectors (called CLiC detectors). The accurate reconstruction of the energies and maximum depths of gamma-ray events using a surface array only, is an especially challenging problem at low energies, and the focus of the project. In this contribution, we leverage Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) using the ALTO detectors only, to try to improve reconstruction performance at lower energies ( < 1 TeV ) as compared to the SEMLA analysis procedure, which is a more traditional method using manually derived features.

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arXiv2021

The CoMET multiperspective event tracker for wide field-of-view gamma-ray astronomy

The CoMET R&D project focuses on the development of a new technique for the observation of very high-energy (VHE) $γ$-rays from the ground at energies above ~200 GeV, thus covering emission from soft-spectrum sources. The CoMET array under study combines 1242 particle detector units, distributed over a circular area of ~160 m in diameter and placed at a very high altitude (5.1 km), with atmospheric Cherenkov light detectors. The atmospheric Cherenkov light detectors, inspired by the "HiSCORE" design and improved for the energy range of interest, can be operated together with the particle detectors during clear nights. As such, the instrument becomes a Cosmic Multiperspective Event Tracker (CoMET). CoMET is expected to improve the reconstruction of arrival direction, energy and shower maximum determination for $γ$-ray-induced showers during darkness, which is crucial for the reduction of background contamination from cosmic rays. Prototypes of both particle and atmospheric Cherenkov light detectors are already installed at Linnaeus University in Sweden, while in parallel we simulate the full detector response and estimate the reconstruction improvement for $γ$-ray events. In this contribution, we present Monte-Carlo simulations of the detector array, consisting of CORSIKA shower simulations and custom detector response simulations, together with the coupling of particle and atmospheric Cherenkov light information, the reconstruction strategy of the complete array and the detection performance on point-like VHE $γ$-ray sources.

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arXiv2021

Cosmic rays in the GeV-TeV energy range from two types of supernovae

The AMS-02 experiment has reported precise measurements of energy spectra of several cosmic-ray species in the range of ~(0.5-2000) GeV/n. An intriguing finding is the differences in the spectral shape between the different species. Protons exhibit the steepest spectrum of all the species, and helium, carbon, oxygen and iron spectra are found to be harder than that of neon, magnesium and silicon. These observations are difficult to explain as diffusive shock acceleration, the currently most plausible theory for cosmic particle acceleration at high energies, expects independence of the spectral index from mass and charge of the accelerated particle. Moreover, propagation in the Galaxy has been shown to not being able to compensate for this discrepancy. In this work, we present an explanation based on two-component model for the origin of cosmic rays in the Galaxy -- the first component originating from regular supernova remnants in the interstellar medium and the second component from Wolf-Rayet supernovae. Using recent results on cosmic-ray injection enhancement at supernova shocks in the uniform interstellar medium and in the wind environment of Wolf-Rayet stars, we show that the combination of the two components may explain most of the behavior observed by the AMS-02 experiment.

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arXiv2020

A LOFAR Observation of Ionospheric Scintillation from Two Simultaneous Travelling Ionospheric Disturbances

This paper presents the results from one of the first observations of ionospheric scintillation taken using the Low-Frequency Array (LOFAR). The observation was of the strong natural radio source Cas A, taken overnight on 18-19 August 2013, and exhibited moderately strong scattering effects in dynamic spectra of intensity received across an observing bandwidth of 10-80MHz. Delay-Doppler spectra (the 2-D FFT of the dynamic spectrum) from the first hour of observation showed two discrete parabolic arcs, one with a steep curvature and the other shallow, which can be used to provide estimates of the distance to, and velocity of, the scattering plasma. A cross-correlation analysis of data received by the dense array of stations in the LOFAR "core" reveals two different velocities in the scintillation pattern: a primary velocity of ~30m/s with a north-west to south-east direction, associated with the steep parabolic arc and a scattering altitude in the F-region or higher, and a secondary velocity of ~110m/s with a north-east to south-west direction, associated with the shallow arc and a scattering altitude in the D-region. Geomagnetic activity was low in the mid-latitudes at the time, but a weak sub-storm at high latitudes reached its peak at the start of the observation. An analysis of Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) and ionosonde data from the time reveals a larger-scale travelling ionospheric disturbance (TID), possibly the result of the high-latitude activity, travelling in the north-west to south-east direction, and, simultaneously, a smaller--scale TID travelling in a north-east to south-west direction, which could be associated with atmospheric gravity wave activity. The LOFAR observation shows scattering from both TIDs, at different altitudes and propagating in different directions. To the best of our knowledge this is the first time that such a phenomenon has been reported.

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arXiv2017

Very-High-Energy gamma-ray astronomy with the ALTO observatory

ALTO is a concept/project in the exploratory phase since 2013 aiming to build a wide-field VHE gamma-ray observatory at very high altitude in the Southern hemisphere. The operation of such an observatory will complement the Northern hemisphere observations performed by HAWC and will make possible the exploration of the central region of our Galaxy and the hunt for PeVatrons, and to search for extended Galactic objects such as the Vela Supernova Remnant and the Fermi bubbles. The ALTO project is aiming for a substantial improvement of the Water Cherenkov Detection Technique by increasing the altitude of the observatory in order to lower the energy threshold, by using a layer of scintillator below the water tank to optimize the S/B discrimination, by minimizing the size of the tanks and having a more compact array to sample the air-shower footprints with better precision, and by using precise electronics which will provide time-stamped waveforms to improve the angular and energy resolution. ALTO is designed to have as low an energy threshold as possible so as to act as a fast trigger alert to other observatories, primarily to the Southern part of CTA, for transient Galactic and extra-galactic phenomena. The wide FoV resulting from the detection technique allows the survey of a large portion of the sky continuously, thus giving the possibility to access emission from Gamma-Ray Bursts, Active Galactic Nuclei and X-ray binary flares, and extended emissions of both Galactic (Vela SNR, Fermi bubbles) and extra-galactic (AGN radio lobes) origin. The ALTO observatory will be composed of about a thousand detection units, each of which consists of a Water Cherenkov Detector positioned above a liquid Scintillation Detector, distributed within an area of about 200 m in diameter. The project is in the design study phase which is soon to be followed by a prototyping phase.

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arXiv2017

Simulation study for the proposed wide field-of-view gamma-ray detector array ALTO

ALTO is a wide field-of-view air shower detector array for very-high-energy (VHE) gamma-ray astronomy, proposed to be installed in the Southern Hemisphere at an altitude of about 5.1 km above sea level. The array will use water Cherenkov detectors, as in the HAWC observatory, but combined with scintillator detectors, to detect air showers induced by VHE gamma rays in the atmosphere. It is being designed to attain a lower energy threshold, better energy and angular resolution, and improved sensitivity. The array will consist of about 1250 small-sized (3.6 m diameter) detector units distributed over a circular area of about 160 m in diameter. Each detector unit will consist of a water Cherenkov detector and a liquid scintillation detector underneath which will preferentially identify muons, facilitating the background (cosmic ray) rejection, thereby improving the sensitivity. The background rejection will be further enhanced by the close-packed arrangement and the small size of the detectors which will allow a fine sampling of air-shower footprints at the ground. In this contribution, we present the Monte-Carlo simulation of the experiment performed using CORSIKA and GEANT4 simulation packages. The expected performance of the array in terms of reconstruction accuracies of the shower core and arrival direction, as well as preliminary estimate of the trigger energy threshold after preliminary selection cuts for a point-like gamma-ray source are presented.

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arXiv2015

Anomaly in the cosmic-ray energy spectrum at GeV-TeV energies

Recent measurements of cosmic rays by various experiments have found that the energy spectrum of cosmic rays is harder in the TeV region than at GeV energies. The origin of the spectral hardening is not clearly understood. In this paper, we discuss the possibility that the spectral hardening might be due to the effect of re-acceleration of cosmic rays by weak shocks associated with old supernova remnants in the Galaxy.

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arXiv2014

A possible origin of gamma rays from the Fermi Bubbles

One of the most exciting discoveries of recent years is a pair of gigantic gamma-ray emission regions, the so-called Fermi bubbles, above and below the Galactic center. The bubbles, discovered by the Fermi space telescope, extend up to $\sim 50^\circ$ in Galactic latitude and are $\sim 40^\circ$ wide in Galactic longitude. The gamma-ray emission is also found to correlate with radio, microwave and X-rays emission. The origin of the bubbles and the associated non-thermal emissions are still not clearly understood. Possible explanations for the non-thermal emission include cosmic-ray injection from the Galactic center by high speed Galactic winds/jets, acceleration by multiple shocks or plasma turbulence present inside the bubbles, and acceleration by strong shock waves associated with the expansion of the bubbles. In this paper, I will discuss the possibility that the gamma-ray emission is produced by the injection of Galactic cosmic-rays mainly protons during their diffusive propagation through the Galaxy. The protons interact with the bubble plasma producing $π^\circ$-decay gamma rays, while at the same time, radio and microwave synchrotron emissions are produced by the secondary electrons/positrons resulting from the $π^{\pm}$ decays.

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arXiv2014

GeV-TeV cosmic-ray spectral anomaly as due to re-acceleration by weak shocks in the Galaxy

Recent cosmic-ray measurements have found an anomaly in the cosmic-ray energy spectrum at GeV-TeV energies. Although the origin of the anomaly is not clearly understood, suggested explanations include effect of cosmic-ray source spectrum, propagation effects, and the effect of nearby sources. In this paper, we propose that the spectral anomaly might be an effect of re-acceleration of cosmic rays by weak shocks in the Galaxy. After acceleration by strong supernova remnant shock waves, cosmic rays undergo diffusive propagation through the Galaxy. During the propagation, cosmic rays may again encounter expanding supernova remnant shock waves, and get re-accelerated. As the probability of encountering old supernova remnants is expected to be larger than the younger ones due to their bigger sizes, re-acceleration is expected to be mainly due to weaker shocks. Since weaker shocks generate a softer particle spectrum, the resulting re-accelerated component will have a spectrum steeper than the initial cosmic-ray source spectrum produced by strong shocks. For a reasonable set of model parameters, it is shown that such re-accelerated component can dominate the GeV energy region while the non-reaccelerated component dominates at higher energies, explaining the observed GeV-TeV spectral anomaly.

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