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Somnath Dutta

Publications and source records attributed to Somnath Dutta.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

Observations of DNC and DCO$^+$ toward the $\int$-shaped Filament and Starless Cores in the Orion Molecular Clouds

Although the deuterium fraction is known to be a powerful evolutionary tracer, its variation within individual molecular cloud cores is still poorly understood. The northern $\int$-shaped filament and 20 individual starless cores in the Orion A and B clouds were mapped in the deuterated molecules of DNC and DCO$^+$ with the Receiver 7BEE installed on the Nobeyama 45~m radio telescope. In a ~ 5' X 30' map of the northern $\int$-shaped filament in the Orion A cloud, the DNC emission is detected over the filament, whereas the DCO$^+$ emission is localized toward OMC-3, the northernmost region of the filament. The difference in distribution between DNC and DCO$^+$ can be attributed to that between N- and C-bearing molecules as previously suggested by Tatematsu et al. High DNC/HN$^{13}$C column density ratios were observed in OMC-2 and OMC-3, and low ratios in OMC-1. It seems that OMC-2 and OMC-3 still contain molecular gas close to the onset of star formation. In 3' X 3' maps of the individual starless cores in Orion, the column density ratios of DNC/HN$^{13}$C and DCO$^+$/H$^{13}$CO$^+$ are found to be rather constant locally within each core, although the core-to-core variation is not small. Similar timescales of deuterization, depletion, and dynamical evolution might explain the locally constant ratio.

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A Monopolar Jet from Protostar HOPS 10: Evidence for Asymmetric Magnetized Launching

A fundamental challenge in star formation is understanding how a protostar accretes mass from its circumstellar disk while removing excess angular momentum. Protostellar jets are widely invoked as the primary channels for angular momentum removal, yet the mechanism by which they are launched and extract angular momentum remains poorly constrained. Here we report high-resolution ALMA Band 7 (345 GHz) and Band 6 (230 GHz) observations of CO (3-2), CO (2-1), and SiO (5-4) emission from the protostar HOPS 10 (G209.55-19.68S2). The combined data trace both the entrained outflow and the collimated jet with excellent spatial and velocity resolution, revealing a uniquely monopolar protostellar jet, the clearest example reported to date. The system exhibits a distinctly unipolar high-velocity jet with velocity offsets of +44 to +66 km s-1, unlike the predominantly bipolar morphology characteristic of most protostellar jets. While the low-velocity outflow, with velocity offsets of -20 to +30 km s-1, is detected in both directions, the high-velocity jet appears only on one side, and this monopolarity is consistent across all tracers. Given the nearly edge-on geometry and low submillimeter extinction, comparable emission would normally be expected from both lobes. The shock tracer SiO emission confirms a genuine, highly collimated jet rather than cloud contamination, and no ambient structure is capable of obscuring a counterjet. We argue that intrinsically asymmetric mass loading along the disk magnetic field lines provides the most plausible explanation for the observed monopolarity.

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ALMASOP: Inner-Envelope Structures of Protostars Driving Nascent Jets

Protostellar jets provide valuable insight into the evolutionary stage and formation history of star-forming cores in their earliest phases. We investigated the inner envelope structures of three extremely young protostars, selected for having the shortest dynamical timescales in their outflows and jets. Our analysis is based on Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) observations of the N2D+, DCO+, DCN, C18O, CH3OH, and H2CO lines, along with 1.3 mm continuum data, obtained at two spatial resolutions of ~500 AU and 150 AU. By examining molecular depletion and sublimation patterns, emission extents at core-scale and outflow rotational temperatures, we assessed the relative evolutionary stages of the three sources. In G208.68-19.20N1, the absence of N2D+ toward the core-despite a semi-ring-like distribution-and the presence of bright DCN and DCO+ emission cospatial with C18O indicate a warmer envelope, possibly suggesting a more advanced evolutionary state. In contrast, G208.68-19.20N3 shows no dense central structures in C18O, DCN, DCO+, or N2D+, with emission instead appearing scattered around the continuum and along large-scale filaments, consistent with a likely younger stage than G208.68-19.20N1. The third source, G215.87-17.62M, exhibits compact C18O emission at the continuum peak, but spatially extended N2D+, DCN, and DCO+ along the continuum, pointing to a cooler envelope and likely the youngest stage among the three. This comparative analysis across three protostars demonstrates the effectiveness of molecular tracers for evolutionary staging, though variations in luminosity or accretion may also shape chemical morphologies. These results highlight the promise of broader surveys for advancing our understanding of early protostellar evolution.

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Jets in Low-Mass Protostars

Jets and outflows are key components of low-mass star formation, regulating accretion and shaping the surrounding molecular clouds. These flows, traced by molecular species at (sub)millimeter wavelengths (e.g., CO, SiO, SO, H$_2$CO, and CH$_3$OH) and by atomic, ionized, and molecular lines in the infrared (e.g., H$_2$, [Fe II], [S I]), originate from protostellar accretion disks deeply embedded within dusty envelopes. Jets play a crucial role in removing angular momentum from the disk, thereby enabling continued mass accretion, while directly preserving a record of the protostar's outflow history and potentially providing indirect insights into its accretion history. Recent advances in high-resolution, high-sensitivity observations, particularly with the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) in the infrared and the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) at (sub)millimeter wavelengths, have revolutionized studies of protostellar jets and outflows. These instruments provide complementary views of warm, shock-excited gas and cold molecular component of the jet-outflow system. In this review, we discuss the current status of observational studies that reveal detailed structures, kinematics, and chemical compositions of protostellar jets and outflows. Recent analyses of mass-loss rates, velocities, rotation, molecular abundances, and magnetic fields provide critical insights into jet launching mechanisms, disk evolution, and the potential formation of binary systems and planets. The synergy of JWST's infrared sensitivity and ALMA's high-resolution imaging is advancing our understanding of jets and outflows. Future large-scale, high-resolution surveys with these facilities are expected to drive major breakthroughs in outflow research.

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Molecular Jets from an Evolved Protostar: Insights from JWST-ALMA Synergy

The combination of ALMA submillimeter and JWST/MIRI mid-infrared observations offers a transformative view of protostellar jets and outflows by probing cold and warm gas components across diverse physical conditions. We present a detailed comparison of gas distribution in these regimes for the jet/outflow system associated with G205.46$-$14.56S3 (HOPS 315), focusing on the inner $\sim$800 AU along the jet. ALMA CO and SiO trace both lobes of the bipolar jet, revealing high-velocity collimated jets and wider outflow components. JWST/MIRI detects mainly the blueshifted lobe; the redshifted side is likely obscured by strong mid-infrared extinction. Shorter-wavelength MIRI H$_2$ rotational lines (S(7)-S(4)) trace compact jet structures resembling SiO emission, while longer-wavelength lines (S(3)-S(1)) reveal more extended emission akin to low-velocity CO. From H$_2$ rotational emission, we identify two molecular gas temperature components: warm $(\sim 773 \pm 44 K)$ and hot $(\sim 2499\pm720 K)$. Using the ortho-to-para ratio, we estimate visual extinction $A_V \approx 23.3 \pm 2.5$ mag. JWST/MIRI emission imply a jet mass-loss rate of $\dot{M}_{J, blue, jwst} \approx (0.27 \pm 0.1) \times 10^{-6}M_\odot {yr}^{-1}$. The combination of ALMA and JWST reveals stratified layers within the outflow and jet, as well as shock structures, providing a comprehensive view of their physical conditions. This multiwavelength study demonstrates that combining submillimeter observations from ALMA with infrared data from JWST is crucial for uncovering the full physical and chemical structure of protostellar jets and outflows.

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ALMASOP. A Rotating Feature Rich in Complex Organic Molecules in a Protostellar Core

Interstellar complex organic molecules (COMs) in solar-like young stellar objects (YSOs), particularly within protostellar disks, are of significant interest due to their potential connection to prebiotic chemistry in emerging planetary systems. We report the discovery of a rotating feature enriched in COMs, including CH3OH, CH3CHO, and NH2CHO, in the protostellar core G192.12-11.10. By constructing a YSO model, we find that the COM-rich feature is likely located within or near the boundary of the Keplerian disk. The image synthesis results suggest that additional heating mechanisms leading to a warm ring or a warm inner disk are required to reproduce the observed emission. We discuss possible origins of the COM-rich feature, particularly accretion shocks as a plausible cause for a warm ring. Additionally, molecules such as C18O, H2CO, DCS, H2S, and OCS exhibit distinct behavior compared to CH3OH, indicating a range of physical and chemical conditions within the region. The observed kinematics of H2S and OCS suggest that OCS resides in regions closer to the central protostar than H2S, consistent with previous experimental studies.

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Dynamic Photometric Variability in Three Young Brown Dwarfs in Taurus: Detection of Optical Flares with TESS data

We present $I$-band time-series photometric variability studies of three known nearby ($\sim$ 140 pc) and young ( $\sim$ 1 Myr) brown dwarfs (BD) in the Taurus star-forming region in the Perseus Molecular Cloud. From 10 nights of observations over a time span of 10 years, with a typical run of 3 to 6 hours each night, we estimated that the BDs show unstable short-scale periodicity from 1.5 to 4.8 hours. Using the long-term photometry from the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS), we have conducted a time-resolved variability analysis of CFHT-BD-Tau 3 and CFHT-BD-Tau 4, revealing orbital periods of $\sim$ 0.96 days and $\sim$ 3 days respectively, consistent with earlier studies. We also found two superflares in TESS sector 43 data for CFHT-BD-Tau 4 and estimated the flare energies as $7.09\times10^{35}$ erg and $3.75\times10^{36}$ erg. A magnetic field of $\sim3.39 ~kG$ is required to generate such flare energies on this BD. We performed spot modelling analysis on CFHT-BD-Tau 3 and CFHT-BD-Tau 4 to address the variability detected in the data using the package BASSMAN. Spectral energy distribution and infrared colours of the sources suggest that they have a sufficient amount of circumstellar material around them.

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Research on the Interstellar Medium and Star Formation in the Galaxy: An Indian Perspective

Although the star formation process has been studied for decades, many important aspects of the physics involved remain unsolved. Recent advancement of instrumentation in the infrared, far-infrared and sub-millimetre wavelength regimes have contributed to a significantly improved understanding of processes in the interstellar medium (ISM) leading to star formation. The future of research on the ISM and star formation looks exciting with instruments like the JWST, ALMA, etc., already contributing to the topic by gathering high-resolution high-sensitivity data and with several larger ground- and space-bound facilities either being planned or constructed. India has a sizable number of astronomers engaged in research on topics related to the ISM and star formation. In this white paper invited by the Astronomical Society of India to prepare a vision document for Indian astronomy, we review the Indian contributions to the global understanding of the star formation process and suggest areas that require focused efforts both in creating observing facilities and in theoretical front in India, in order to improve the impact of our research in the coming decades.

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ALMA Survey of Orion Planck Galactic Cold Clumps (ALMASOP): Nested Morphological and Kinematic Structures of Outflows Revealed in SiO and CO Emission

The Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array Survey of Orion Planck Galactic Cold Clumps (ALMASOP) reveals complex nested morphological and kinematic features of molecular outflows through the CO (J = 2 - 1) and SiO (J = 5 - 4) emission. We characterize the jet and outflow kinematics of the ALMASOP sample in four representative sources (HOPS 10, 315, 358, and G203.21-11.20W2) through channel maps and position-velocity diagrams (PVDs) parallel and transverse to the outflow axes. The combined CO and SiO emission exhibits the coexistence of the conventional extremely-high-velocity (EHV) jets and shell-like low-velocity (LV) cavity walls and new features. More complex, nested bubble-like and filamentary structures in the images and channel maps, triangle-shaped regions near the base of the parallel PVDs, and regions composed of rhombus/oval shapes in the transverse PVDs, are also evident. Such features find natural explanations within the bubble structure of the unified model of jet, wind, and ambient medium. The reverse shock cavity is revealed on the PVD base regions, and other features naturally arise within the dynamic postshock region of magnetic interaction. The finer nested shells observed within the compressed wind region reveal previously unnoticed shocked emission between the jet and the conventional large cavity walls. These pseudopulse-produced filamentary features connect to the jet-like knotty blobs, creating an impression of episodicity in mass ejection. SiO emission is enhanced downstream of the reverse shock boundary, with jet-like excitation conditions. Combined, these observed features reveal the extended structures induced by the magnetic interplay between a jet-bearing magnetized wide-angle wind and its ambient magnetized surrounding medium.

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Multiple Components of the Outflow in the Protostellar System HH 212: Outer Outflow Shell, Rotating Wind, Shocked Wind, and Jet

We present the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array Band 7 observations of the CO (J=3-2) line emission of the protostellar system HH 212 at $\sim$24 au spatial resolution and compare them to those of the SiO (J=8-7) and SO (J=8-7) line emission reported in the literature. We find that the CO line traces four distinct regions: (1) an outer outflow shell, (2) a rotating wind region between the SiO and CO shells, (3) the shocked and wide-angle inner X-wind inside a SiO shell, and (4) the jet. The origin of the CO outer outflow shell could be associated with the entrained material of the envelope, or an extended disk wind. The rotating wind, which is shocked, is launched from a radius of 9-15 au, slightly exterior to that of the previously detected SO shell, which marks the boundary where the wide-angle X-wind is interacting with and shocking the disk wind. Additionally, the SO is found to be mixed with the CO emission within the thick and extended rotating wind region. The large scale CO shocked wind coexists with the SO emission near the upper portion of the inner shocked region converged on top of the inner SiO knots. The CO jet is traced by a chain of knots with roughly equal interval, exhibiting quasi-periodicity, as reported in other jets in the literature.

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ALMASOP. The Localized and Chemically rich Features near the Bases of the Protostellar Jet in HOPS 87

HOPS 87 is a Class 0 protostellar core known to harbor an extremely young bipolar outflow and a hot corino. We report the discovery of localized, chemically rich regions near the bases of the two-lobe bipolar molecular outflow in HOPS 87 containing molecules such as H$_2$CO, $^{13}$CS, H$_2$S, OCS, and CH$_3$OH, the simplest complex organic molecule (COM). The locations and kinematics suggest that these localized features are due to jet-driven shocks rather than being part of the hot corino region encasing the protostar. The COM compositions of the molecular gas in these jet-localized regions are relatively simpler than those in the hot corino zone. We speculate that this simplicity is due to either the liberation of ice with a less complex chemical history or the effects of shock chemistry. Our study highlights the dynamic interplay between the protostellar bipolar outflow, disk, inner core environment, and the surrounding medium, contributing to our understanding of molecular complexity in solar-like young stellar objects.

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The first Ka-band (26.1-35 GHz) blind line survey towards Orion KL

We conducted a Ka-band (26.1--35 GHz) line survey towards Orion KL using the TianMa 65-m Radio Telescope (TMRT). It is the first blind line survey in the Ka band, and achieves a sensitivity of mK level (1--3 mK at a spectral resolution of $\sim$1 km s$^{-1}$). In total, 592 Gaussian features are extracted. Among them, 257 radio recombination lines (RRLs) are identified. The maximum $Δn$ of RRLs of H, He and C are 20, 15, and 5, respectively. Through stacking, we have detected the $β$ lines of ion RRLs (RRLs of C$^+$ with possible contribution of other ions like O$^+$) for the first time, and tentative signal of the $γ$ lines of ion RRLs can also be seen on the stacked spectrum. Besides, 318 other line features were assigned to 37 molecular species, and ten of these species were not detected in the Q-band survey of TMRT. The vibrationally excited states of nine species were also detected. Emission of most species can be modeled under LTE. A number of transitions of E-CH3OH ($J_2-J_1$) display maser effects, which are confirmed by our modeling, and besides the bumping peak at $J\sim 6$ there is another peak at $J\sim 13$. Methylcyanoacetylene (CH$_3$C$_3$N) is detected in Orion KL for the first time. This work emphasizes that the Ka band, which was long-ignored for spectral line surveys, is very useful for surveying RRLs and molecular lines simultaneously.

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ALMA Survey of Orion Planck Galactic Cold Clumps (ALMASOP): Discovery of an extremely dense and compact object embedded in the prestellar core G208.68-19.92-N2

The internal structure of the prestellar core G208.68-19.02-N2 (G208-N2) in the Orion Molecular Cloud 3 (OMC-3) region has been studied with the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA). The dust continuum emission revealed a filamentary structure with a length of $\sim$5000 au and an average H$_2$ volume density of $\sim$6 $\times$ 10$^7$ cm$^{-3}$. At the tip of this filamentary structure, there is a compact object, which we call a ``nucleus", with a radius of $\sim$150--200 au and a mass of $\sim$0.1 M$_{\odot}$. The nucleus has a central density of $\sim$2 $\times$ 10$^9$ cm$^{-3}$ with a radial density profile of $r^{-1.87{\pm}0.11}$. The density scaling of the nucleus is $\sim$3.7 times higher than that of the singular isothermal sphere. This as well as the very low virial parameter of 0.39 suggest that the gravity is dominant over the pressure everywhere in the nucleus. However, there is no sign of CO outflow localized to this nucleus. The filamentary structure is traced by the N$_2$D$^+$ 3--2 emission, but not by the C$^{18}$O 2--1 emission, implying the significant CO depletion due to high density and cold temperature. Toward the nucleus, the N$_2$D$^+$ also shows the signature of depletion. This could imply either the depletion of the parent molecule, N$_2$, or the presence of the embedded very-low luminosity central source that could sublimate the CO in the very small area. The nucleus in G208-N2 is considered to be a prestellar core on the verge of first hydrostatic core (FHSC) formation or a candidate for the FHSC.

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ALMA Survey of Orion Planck Galactic Cold Clumps (ALMASOP): The Warm-Envelope Origin of Hot Corinos

Hot corinos are of great interest due to their richness in interstellar complex organic molecules (COMs) and the consequent potential prebiotic connection to solar-like planetary systems. Recent surveys have reported an increasing number of hot corino detections in Class 0/I protostars; however, the relationships between their physical properties and the hot-corino signatures remain elusive. In this study, our objective is to establish a general picture of the detectability of the hot corinos by identifying the origin of the hot-corino signatures in the sample of young stellar objects (YSOs) obtained from the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array Survey of Orion Planck Galactic Cold Clumps (ALMASOP) project. We apply spectral energy distribution (SED) modeling to our sample and identify the physical parameters of the modeled YSOs directly, linking the detection of hot-corino signatures to the envelope properties of the YSOs. Imaging simulations of the methanol emission further support this scenario. We, therefore, posit that the observed COM emission originates from the warm inner envelopes of the sample YSOs, based on both the warm region size and the envelope density profile. The former is governed by the source luminosity and is additionally affected by the disk and cavity properties, while the latter is related to the evolutionary stages. This scenario provides a framework for detecting hot-corino signatures toward luminous Class 0 YSOs, with fewer detections observed toward similarly luminous Class I sources.

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Episodic Accretion in Protostars -- An ALMA Survey of Molecular Jets in the Orion Molecular Cloud

Protostellar outflows and jets are almost ubiquitous characteristics during the mass accretion phase, and encode the history of stellar accretion, complex-organic molecule (COM) formation, and planet formation. Episodic jets are likely connected to episodic accretion through the disk. Despite the importance, there is a lack of studies of a statistically significant sample of protostars via high-sensitivity and high-resolution observations. To explore episodic accretion mechanisms and the chronologies of episodic events, we investigated 42 fields containing protostars with ALMA observations of CO, SiO, and 1.3\,mm continuum emission. We detected SiO emission in 21 fields, where 19 sources are driving confirmed molecular jets with high abundances of SiO. Jet velocities, mass-loss rates, mass-accretion rates, and periods of accretion events are found to be dependent on the driving forces of the jet (e.g., bolometric luminosity, envelope mass). Next, velocities and mass-loss rates are positively correlated with the surrounding envelope mass, suggesting that the presence of high mass around protostars increases the ejection-accretion activity. We determine mean periods of ejection events of 20$-$175 years for our sample, which could be associated with perturbation zones of $\sim$ 2$-$25\,au extent around the protostars. Also, mean ejection periods are anti-correlated with the envelope mass, where high-accretion rates may trigger more frequent ejection events. The observed periods of outburst/ejection are much shorter than the freeze-out time scale of the simplest COMs like CH$_3$OH, suggesting that episodic events largely maintain the ice-gas balance inside and around the snowline.

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ALMA Survey of Orion Planck Galactic Cold Clumps (ALMASOP): A forming quadruple system with continuum `ribbons' and intricate outflows

One of the most poorly understood aspects of low-mass star formation is how multiple-star systems are formed. Here we present the results of Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) Band-6 observations towards a forming quadruple protostellar system, G206.93-16.61E2, in the Orion B molecular cloud. ALMA 1.3 mm continuum emission reveals four compact objects, of which two are Class I young stellar objects (YSOs), and the other two are likely in prestellar phase. The 1.3 mm continuum emission also shows three asymmetric ribbon-like structures that are connected to the four objects, with lengths ranging from $\sim$500 au to $\sim$2200 au. By comparing our data with magneto-hydrodynamic (MHD) simulations, we suggest that these ribbons trace accretion flows and also function as gas bridges connecting the member protostars. Additionally, ALMA CO J=2-1 line emission reveals a complicated molecular outflow associated with G206.93-16.61E2 with arc-like structures suggestive of an outflow cavity viewed pole-on.

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Density Structure of Centrally Concentrated Prestellar Cores from Multi-scale Observations

Starless cores represent the initial stage of evolution toward (proto)star formation, and a subset of them, known as prestellar cores, with high density (~ 10^6 cm^-3 or higher) and being centrally concentrated are expected to be embryos of (proto)stars. Determining the density profile of prestellar cores, therefore provides an important opportunity to gauge the initial conditions of star formation. In this work, we perform rigorous modeling to estimate the density profiles of three nearly spherical prestellar cores among a sample of five highly dense cores detected by our recent observations. We employed multi-scale observational data of the (sub)millimeter dust continuum emission including those obtained by SCUBA-2 on the JCMT with a resolution of ~5600 au and by multiple ALMA observations with a resolution as high as ~480 au. We are able to consistently reproduce the observed multi-scale dust continuum images of the cores with a simple prescribed density profile, which bears an inner region of flat density and a r^-2 profile toward the outer region. By utilizing the peak density and the size of the inner flat region as a proxy for the dynamical stage of the cores, we find that the three modeled cores are most likely unstable and prone to collapse. The sizes of the inner flat regions, as compact as ~500 au, signify them being the highly evolved prestellar cores rarely found to date.

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ALMA Survey of Orion Planck Galactic Cold Clumps (ALMASOP): Detection of extremely high density compact structure of prestellar cores and multiple substructures within

Prestellar cores are self-gravitating dense and cold structures within molecular clouds where future stars are born. They are expected, at the stage of transitioning to the protostellar phase, to harbor centrally concentrated dense (sub)structures that will seed the formation of a new star or the binary/multiple stellar systems. Characterizing this critical stage of evolution is key to our understanding of star formation. In this work, we report the detection of high density (sub)structures on the thousand-au scale in a sample of dense prestellar cores. Through our recent ALMA observations towards the Orion molecular cloud, we have found five extremely dense prestellar cores, which have centrally concentrated regions $\sim$ 2000 au in size, and several $10^7$ $cm^{-3}$ in average density. Masses of these centrally dense regions are in the range of 0.30 to 6.89 M$_\odot$. {\it For the first time}, our higher resolution observations (0.8$'' \sim $ 320 au) further reveal that one of the cores shows clear signatures of fragmentation; such individual substructures/fragments have sizes of 800 -1700 au, masses of 0.08 to 0.84 M$_\odot$, densities of $2 - 8\times 10^7$ $cm^{-3}$ and separations of $\sim 1200$ au. The substructures are massive enough ($\gtrsim 0.1~M_\odot$) to form young stellar objects and are likely examples of the earliest stage of stellar embryos which can lead to widely ($\sim$ 1200 au) separated multiple systems.

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