arXiv subjects

Stuart D. Bale

Publications and source records attributed to Stuart D. Bale.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

arXiv2026

Direct Measurement of Polar Coronal Hole-like Solar Wind in its Acceleration Phase

The early evolution of fast polar coronal hole (PCH) solar wind remains largely unconstrained by in situ measurements. In March 2025, Parker Solar Probe (Parker) at its closest approach of 9.86 Solar Radii ($R_\odot$) measured outflow from a large equatorial coronal hole (ECH) which was also measured at 1\,au and at intermediate distances by Solar Orbiter (also near its perihelion). At 1\,au the stream properties are consistent with PCH properties established by Ulysses. The stream was measured by Parker substantially below the Alfv\'en surface, with proton temperatures in excess of 2\,MK and a speed at $\sim$10\,$R_\odot$ which was only $\sim$60\% of its asymptotic value. The Solar Orbiter data indicates that the acceleration is largely complete by 60~$R_{\odot}$. Spherically-polarized fluctuations in the stream are observed to develop from near-transverse and small-angle at Parker to full reversal ``switchbacks'' at Solar Orbiter. Comparison of the implied acceleration profile to historical doppler-dimming measurements suggests that the stream's low coronal acceleration is similar to that of PCH flows. Consistent with previous work, this acceleration requires significantly more energy than can be provided by the observed thermal pressure gradients, with a significant contribution likely from the abundant Alfv\'enic fluctuation energy observed at Parker. These observations provide unique constraints on models of the radial evolution of the fastest solar wind, and indicate that these wind streams experience gradual, steady acceleration over their first few tens of solar radii of evolution.

astro-ph.SR↗

arXiv2026

The MegaWave Radio Surveyor

Several Decadal-level questions in astrophysics, exoplanets, astrobiology, and cosmology can be addressed only at low radio frequencies inaccessible from Earth. The MegaWave Radio Surveyor would open this largely-unexplored region of the electromagnetic spectrum with a space-based interferometer to (1)~Track the space weather of other stars; (2)~Detect magnetically-generated emission from exoplanets to probe their interiors and assess magnetic shielding of their atmospheres; (3)~Probe the Universe's evolution during the Dark Ages via the highly-redshifted HI hyperfine line; and (4)~Assess the role of cosmic rays and magnetic fields in the cosmic web. An Astrophysics Strategic Technology & Research Accelerator (ASTRA) Initiative concept, the MegaWave Radio Surveyor's science objectives respond to the Pathways to Discovery Decadal Survey and three other National Academies studies, and it would serve as a Formative Era mission in the Enduring Quests, Daring Visions roadmap. Developments in U.S. space industries enable this observatory to be realized. The MegaWave Radio Surveyor would offer a versatile, scalable, and resilient architecture capable of sensitive and simultaneous observations below 45~MHz and unprecedented angular resolution at these frequencies. The concept builds upon NASA's Sun Radio Interferometer Space Experiment (SunRISE), Star-Planet Activity Research CubeSat (SPARCS), and Lunar Surface Electromagnetics Experiment (LuSEE-Night). The MegaWave Radio Surveyor could leverage multiple elements of the Artemis program, such as access to and beyond cislunar space and communications, and there are opportunities to infuse new autonomy/AI modes for mission operations. By opening one of the last windows in the electromagnetic spectrum and pioneering space interferometry at unprecedented scales, the MegaWave Radio Surveyor would establish a transformational capability.

astro-ph.IM↗

arXiv2026

Physics of Circular Polarized Ion-Scale Waves in Hybrid Simulations of Alfv\'enic Fluctuations

Ion cyclotron waves (ICW) and fast magnetosonic/whistler waves (FMW) are fundamental electromagnetic modes at ion kinetic scales, yet their generation mechanisms and roles in plasma evolution remain poorly understood. We analyze a 2.5D hybrid simulation of broadband Alfv\'{e}nic fluctuations, where the proton velocity distribution is modeled as a sum of two bi-Maxwellian components: a thermal core and a drifting beam. Using wavelet-based wave identification, bi-Maxwellian VDF fitting, and the PLUME linear dispersion solver, we find that ICW behave as linear modes. Growth is intermittent, occurring when core temperature anisotropy builds up, and is driven mainly by the core (the beam contributes negligibly). Poynting flux analysis shows that ICW are predominantly forward-propagating, with a net energy flux ratio of $+1$ across all frequencies, consistent with the initial condition. FMW present a stark contrast: PLUME solutions often yield very small (near-zero) linear growth/damping rates. The species decomposition breaks down when $|\gamma/\omega_r| \gtrsim 0.368$, indicating that linear theory predicts these waves to be strongly damped and not describable by linear eigenmodes. Nevertheless, FMW are clearly observed in the wavelet helicity spectrogram, indicating that they are generated by nonlinear processes (e.g., parametric decay or phase steepening) and persist despite linear damping. The net energy flux ratio for FMW is close to $+1$ at low frequencies but decreases at higher frequencies, yet never reaches zero (net energy flow remains forward). These results demonstrate that ICW are linear, core-driven waves that transfer energy to the plasma, while FMW are heavily damped, nonlinearly generated waves.

physics.plasm-ph↗

arXiv2026

Spherically Polarized Alfv\'en Waves and the Gosling Boost

Alfv\'en waves are thought to play critical roles in solar wind acceleration and plasma heating in the solar corona and inner heliosphere. Parker Solar Probe (PSP) has highlighted the role of large amplitude Spherically Polarized Alfv\'en Waves (SPAWs), where the locally constant magnetic field magnitude $|\mathbf{B}|$ together with outward propagation explains the observed one sided radial velocity enhancement - the Gosling boost. Starting from the MHD equations, we derive the modified wave pressure and Poynting flux under the SPAW condition, and demonstrate both are governed solely by the transverse magnetic fluctuations. Using PSP data from Encounters 6--25, we define an unperturbed velocity baseline from the lower 10th-percentile running average and statistically characterize the radial evolution of Alfv\'enic fluctuations. The background solar wind velocity shows clear radial acceleration, while the velocity perturbation amplitude $\delta v$ decreases with heliocentric distance. This decay is anisotropic between the radial and perpendicular directions, which is a direct consequence of the growing magnetic deflection angle related to the spherical polarization. Our results demonstrate that radial velocity enhancements in the young solar wind arise naturally from SPAWs rather than from localized velocity jets, and provide direct observational evidence for the anisotropic radial evolution of SPAWs in the inner heliosphere.

astro-ph.SR↗

arXiv2026

Direct Measurement of Diffusion Coefficients: Evidence for Diffusive Stochastic Heating in Collisionless Plasmas

Open questions in collisionless plasma dissipation can be addressed using space-based observations in different astrophysical environments, with implications for both astrophysical and laboratory plasma systems. We study a low-$\beta$, highly imbalanced, sub-Alfv\'enic stream observed by Parker Solar Probe (PSP) to identify and distinguish between signatures of stochastic heating (SH) and resonant heating (RH) by parallel ion cyclotron waves (ICWs). Prior work studying this stream (Bowen et al., 2025) showed that the SH rate, accounting for intermittency, matched the amplitude of the local energy transfer (LET) rate while the RH rate did not. This comparison relied on a number of assumptions regarding the nature of the diffusive process, and the calculation of the LET rate. We introduce a novel technique of inverting the proton guiding center equation to empirically measure velocity-space diffusion coefficients using three-dimensional proton velocity distribution functions (VDFs), from the ion electrostatic analyzer (SPANi) on PSP. Measured diffusion coefficients are used to determine phase-space heating rates, leading to a calculation of a fully kinetic heating rate independent of assumptions made in prior work. We show that scale-dependent analytic expressions for SH via non-coherent fluctuations match the empirical measurements from PSP data, provided that we account for intermittency in the heating calculation. In contrast, the derived heating rates for SH that accounts for the effects of the helicity barrier, and heating rates for RH via $\parallel$-ICWs do not peak in the same region of velocity-space as the empirical measurements, nor reach the required magnitude. Our approach provides novel methodology to uniquely identify and constrain heating processes in collisionless plasmas, and shows evidence of a Fokker-Planck like diffusive process in the near-Sun solar wind.

astro-ph.SR↗

arXiv2026

Cyclotron breaking: a mechanism for parallel ion cyclotron waves to heat the fast solar wind

The $\textit{Parker Solar Probe}$ ($\textit{PSP}$) mission has observed near-continuous power in parallel ion cyclotron waves (PICWs) in the young, fast solar wind. These waves are unlikely to be directly produced by the turbulent cascade and are likely born of a local instability; yet, they are observed to both cool -- and heat -- the plasma. We propose that these observations can be self-consistently explained as the natural consequence of PICWs propagating in the inhomogeneous solar wind after they have been driven unstable. In this work, we argue that strong proton heating by a turbulent cascade of oblique ICWs will result in PICWs being driven unstable in a process known as quasi-linear focusing. Because the power in the turbulent cascade is concentrated at scales above the turbulent transition region, PICWs will be driven unstable within a range of wave numbers parallel to the background magnetic field, $k_\parallel$, that is bounded from above by $k_{\parallel\rm P}^*$, corresponding to the start of the transition region. As unstable PICWs propagate away from the sun to regions of lower proton density, their $k_\parallel$, multiplied by the proton inertial length $d_{\rm p}$, increases. Eventually, the $k_\parallel d_{\rm p}$ of the PICWs becomes larger than $k_{\parallel\rm P}^*d_{\rm p}$ and the waves damp, heating the solar wind. We call this effect `cyclotron breaking', in analogy with ocean waves breaking on the shore. We then discuss the testable predictions of the theory, including a distinct heating signature in which PICWs cool fast protons and heat slow protons at any given heliocentric distance $r$. Finally, we conjecture that cyclotron breaking can lead to net heating by PICWs if the power emitted as PICWs decreases sufficiently rapidly with $r$ that local emission of PICWs is overwhelmed by the local damping of PICWs generated closer to the sun.

astro-ph.SR↗

arXiv2026

Joint Estimation of Properties of the Lunar Subsurface and Galactic Foregrounds with LuSEE-Night

The Lunar Surface Electromagnetics Experiment (LuSEE-Night) is a joint NASA-DOE-ESA low-frequency radio telescope that will reach the lunar far side in 2027. The unknown dielectric properties of the subsurface at the LuSEE-Night landing site impose the most significant limitation for precision instrument calibration, as reflections from the lunar subsurface can change the primary beam at the 10-20% level. Simulations of these effects have provided insight and concern, showing that the lunar subsurface modeled as a lossy dielectric can absorb a large amount of the power of the sky signal. While this absorption may not strongly impact the signal-to-noise ratio in a sky-noise-dominated regime, it could complicate the beam pattern and make the signal more difficult to model and interpret. We have simulated the far-field properties of the LuSEE-Night beam for varying dielectric profiles of the lunar subsurface. We find that varying the properties of the lunar subsurface has the most significant impact around the antenna resonance, impacting its amplitude, position and width. Conversely, changing the properties of the foreground impacts the data across the band. We use a Bayesian inference pipeline to jointly estimate parameters of a galactic foreground model and dielectric properties of the lunar subsurface around the LuSEE-Night landing site and find that parameters of both the galaxy and subsurface properties can be estimated jointly. While the modeling is somewhat idealized, we believe that the results are largely robust owing to the fact that spectral variations for plausible subsurface and galaxy models have very different spectral signatures.

astro-ph.IM↗

arXiv2026

Electrical coupling of a horizontal dipole antenna to a dielectric half-space: applications to radio astronomy from the lunar surface

The far side of the Moon, shielded from terrestrial radio frequency interference and beyond the influence of Earth's ionosphere, should offer a uniquely quiet environment for radio astronomy and cosmological experiments. The radio sky below 30 MHz is largely unexplored and is thought to contain spectral signatures of new physics in the early, high-redshift Universe. Achieving precision measurements in this band requires accurate understanding of antenna performance and systematics. For upcoming lunar surface radio astronomy missions, this modeling will be challenging because antennas will deploy at heights that are only a small fraction of a wavelength above the lunar regolith, where strong coupling between the antenna and the surface can significantly alter impedance, radiation patterns, and efficiency. The challenge is compounded by the layered dielectric structure of the regolith and the tendency for permittivity to increase with depth, both of which are difficult to represent faithfully in numerical simulations. In this work, we review theoretical predictions for the behavior of a simple horizontal dipole above a dielectric half-space, representing the lunar regolith, and compare them with simulation results obtained using the Ansys HFSS integral equation solver. We quantify how the antenna impedance and beam pattern couple to the sky for a representative lunar surface radio astronomy experiment. The results show that surface induced effects decrease rapidly, even for modest increases in antenna height above the regolith. Conversely, a dipole antenna placed on or very near the lunar surface will exhibit complex spectral response that renders systematics control very difficult without detailed information on regolith properties.

astro-ph.IM↗

arXiv2026

Properties of Magnetic Switchbacks in the Near-Sun Solar Wind

Magnetic switchbacks are fluctuations in the solar wind in which the interplanetary magnetic field sharply deflects away from its background direction so as to create folds in magnetic field lines while remaining of roughly constant magnitude. The magnetic field and velocity fluctuations are extremely well correlated in a way corresponding to Alfv\'enic fluctuations propagating away from the Sun. For a background field which is nearly radial this causes an outwardly propagating jet to form. Switchbacks and their characteristic velocity jets have recently been observed to be nearly ubiquitous by Parker Solar Probe with in situ measurements in the inner heliosphere within 0.3 AU. Their prevalence, substantial energy content, and potentially fundamental role in the dynamics of the outer corona and solar wind motivate the significant research efforts into their understanding. Here we review the in situ measurements of these structures (primarily by Parker Solar Probe). We discuss how they are identified and measured, and present an overview of the primary observational properties of these structures, both in terms of individual switchbacks and their collective arrangement into ``patches''. We identify both properties for which there is a strong consensus and those that have limited or qualified support and require further investigation. We identify and collate several open questions and recommendations for future studies.

physics.space-ph↗

arXiv2025

On the magnetic field evolution of interplanetary coronal mass ejections from 0.07 to 5.4 au

A central question for understanding interplanetary coronal mass ejection (ICME) physics and improving space weather forecasting is how ICMEs evolve in interplanetary space. We have updated one of the most comprehensive in situ ICME catalogs to date, which now includes 1976 events from 11 space missions covering over 34 years, from December 1990 to August 2025. We have combined existing catalogs including magnetic obstacles and identified and added boundaries of an additional 807 (40.8%) events ourselves. With this catalog, we demonstrate the most extensive analysis to date of total ICME magnetic field values as a function of heliocentric distance. Parker Solar Probe has observed 6 ICMEs at $< 0.23$ au (until April 2025), and Solar Orbiter and BepiColombo have added more events near 0.3 au, bridging the major observational gap towards the solar corona. Our main result is that a single power law can describe the evolution of the mean total magnetic field (exponent value of $k=-1.57$) and maximum field ($k=-1.53$) for ICMEs with magnetic obstacles (MOs), from 0.07 to 5.4 au. Extending the power law to the solar photosphere reveals a strong inconsistency with magnetic field magnitudes observed in the quiet Sun and active regions by 2 and 4 orders of magnitude, respectively. We introduce a multipole-type power law with two exponents, $k_1=-1.57$, and $k_2=-6$, relating the ICME magnetic field magnitude to an average solar active region field strength. These results present important observational constraints for the evolution of ICMEs from the Sun to the heliosphere.

astro-ph.SR↗

arXiv2025

On the Relation between Source Region and In-situ Variability of Low $\delta B$ Solar Wind Streams

Parker Solar Probe (PSP) observed a high speed stream near the Sun ($\sim 9.8 R_\odot$) in March 2025. As this stream was observed near the Sun, it allowed for an unparalleled opportunity to observe pristine, coronal hole wind with little evolution (expansion, stream interaction, etc) effects impacting its properties. Through an ensemble of magnetic connectivity analysis utilizing Potential Field Source Surface (PFSS) modeling and ballistic propagation, we make estimates of the footpoints, and corresponding source region parameters, associated with the stream. We then look at how the low variability regions (small gradient in the in-situ $B_r$) are related to the variability in the field strength at their source ($B_0$). We find that about half of these periods are associated with low source region variability. Lastly, we examine the low $\delta B / B$ periods between switchback patches and similarly find that they show statistically less variability in their associated $B_0$ value than their switchback patch counterparts. We believe that these results point to a solar source of these ``low-variability" periods, that warrants further investigation with composition diagnostics and more complex modeling techniques.

physics.space-ph↗

arXiv2025

Proton specific entropy as a proxy for the $O^{7+}/O^{6+}$ charge state ratio over heliocentric distance

While the fast solar wind has well-established origins in coronal holes, the source of the slow solar wind remains uncertain. Compositional metrics, such as heavy ion charge state ratios are set in the lower corona, providing insights into solar wind source regions. However, prior to the launch of Solar Orbiter, in situ measurements of heavy ion charge state were limited to distances of 1 AU and beyond. We investigate proton specific entropy as a proxy for the oxygen charge state ratio ($O^{7+}/O^{6+}$),which generally becomes frozen-in below ~1.8 Rsun, leveraging observations from Solar Orbiter's Heavy Ion Sensor and Proton and Alphas Sensor covering 0.28 to 1 AU. Our analysis confirms a strong anti-correlation between specific entropy and the oxygen charge state ratio that persists over a broad range of distances in the inner heliosphere. We categorize observed solar wind into fast solar wind, slow Alfvenic solar wind, and slow solar wind, identifying clear distinctions in specific entropy values and charge state ratios across these types. The work demonstrates the potential to use proton specific entropy as a classifier of solar wind source regions throughout the heliosphere. By establishing the $S_p$-$O^{7+}/O^{6+}$ relationship and quantifying its radial dependence, the specific entropy can be used as a quantity to identify the solar wind source region in the absence of in-situ charge state measurements. This motivates future studies as to the applicability of this proxy to near-Sun observations (such as Parker Solar Probe) and throughout the inner heliosphere.

astro-ph.SR↗

arXiv2025

In situ Evidence of 5-minute Oscillations from Parker Solar Probe

The Sun's surface vibrates in characteristic 5-minute oscillations, known as p-modes, generated by sound waves trapped within the convection zone. Although these oscillations have long been hypothesized to reach into the solar wind, direct in situ evidence has remained elusive, even during previous close encounters by Parker Solar Probe (PSP). Here, we present the first promising in situ detection of 5-minute oscillations in the upper solar corona, based on observations from PSP's three closest perihelia. In two events at 9.9 solar radii, we identify statistically significant ($\sim$ 6 $\sigma$) 3.1-3.2 mHz peaks in the magnetic field power spectrum, each appearing as a large-amplitude, spherically polarized Alfv\'enic wave train lasting approximately 35 minutes. These results demonstrate that global solar oscillations can reach and potentially influence the solar wind.

astro-ph.SR↗

arXiv2025

On the Propagation and Damping of Alfvenic Fluctuations in the Outer Solar Corona and Solar Wind

We analyze \textit{Parker Solar Probe} and \textit{Solar Orbiter} observations to investigate the propagation and dissipation of Alfv\'enic fluctuations from the outer corona to 1~AU. Conservation of wave-action flux provides the theoretical baseline for how fluctuation amplitudes scale with the Alfv\'en Mach number $M_a$, once solar-wind acceleration is accounted for. Departures from this scaling quantify the net balance between energy injection and dissipation. Fluctuation amplitudes follow wave-action conservation for $M_a < M_a^{b}$ but steepen beyond this break point, which typically lies near the Alfv\'en surface ($M_a \approx 1$) yet varies systematically with normalized cross helicity $\sigma_c$ and fluctuation scale. In slow, quasi-balanced streams, the transition occurs at $M_a \lesssim 1$; in fast, imbalanced wind, WKB-like scaling persists to $M_a \gtrsim 1$. Outer-scale fluctuations maintain wave-action conservation to larger $M_a$ than inertial-range modes. The turbulent heating rate $Q$ is largest below $M_a^{b}$, indicating a preferential heating zone shaped by the degree of imbalance. Despite this, the Alfv\'enic energy flux $F_a$ remains elevated, and the corresponding damping length $\Lambda_d = F_a/Q$ remains sufficiently large to permit long-range propagation before appreciable damping occurs. Normalized damping lengths $\Lambda_d/H_A$, where $H_A$ is the inverse Alfv\'en-speed scale height, are near unity for $M_a \lesssim M_a^{b}$ but decline with increasing $M_a$ and decreasing $U$, implying that incompressible reflection-driven turbulence alone cannot account for the observed dissipation. Additional damping mechanisms -- such as compressible effects -- are likely required to account for the observed heating rates across much of the parameter space.

astro-ph.SR↗

arXiv2025

Stochastic Heating in the Sub-Alfv\'enic Solar Wind

Collisionless dissipation of turbulence is important for heating plasmas in astrophysical, space physics, and laboratory environments, controlling energy, momentum and particle transport. We analyze Parker Solar Probe observations to understand the collisionless heating of the sub-Alfv\'enic solar wind, which is connected to the solar corona. Our results show that linear resonant heating through parallel-propagating cyclotron waves cannot account for turbulent dissipation in sub-Alfv\'enic region, which observations suggest may dissipate turbulence at distances further from the Sun. Instead, we find that stochastic heating can account for the observed ion energization; however, because the dominant contributions arise from infrequent, large-amplitude events, turbulent intermittency must be explicitly incorporated. These observations directly connect stochastic heating via breaking of the proton magnetic moment with the intermittent and inhomogeneous heating of turbulence reported in many previous studies. Our identification of stochastic heating as a dynamic mechanism responsible for intermittent heating of the solar wind has significant implications for turbulent dissipation in the lower corona, other astrophysical environments, and laboratory plasma.

astro-ph.SR↗

arXiv2025

Multi-spacecraft Measurements of the Evolving Geometry of the Solar Alfv\'en Surface Over Half a Solar Cycle

The geometry of a star's Alfv\'en surface determines stellar angular momentum loss, separates a causally distinct 'corona' and stellar wind, and potentially affects exoplanetary habitability. The solar Alfv\'en surface is the only such structure that is directly measurable and since 2021, has been routinely measured in situ by NASA's Parker Solar Probe (Parker). We use these unique measurements in concert with Solar Orbiter and L1 in situ data spanning the first half of the Solar Cycle 25 in time and from 0.045 - 1 au in heliocentric distance to develop a radial scaling technique to estimate the morphology of the Alfv\'en surface from measurements of the solar wind speed and local Alfv\'en speed. We show that accounting for solar wind acceleration and mass flux is necessary to achieve reasonable agreement between the scaled location of the Alfv\'en surface and the locations of direct crossings measured by Parker. We produce continuous 2D equatorial cuts of the Alfv\'en surface over half a Solar Cycle (ascending phase and maximum). Parker's earliest crossings clipped outward extrusions, many of which are likely transient related, while more recently Parker has unambiguously sampled deep sub-Alfv\'enic flows. We analyze the average altitude, departure from spherical symmetry, and surface roughness, finding that all are positively correlated to solar activity. For the current modest Solar Cycle, the height varies up to 30\% which corresponds to a near-doubling in angular momentum loss per unit mass loss.

astro-ph.SR↗

arXiv2025

The impact of Alfvenic shear flow on magnetic reconnection and turbulence

Magnetic reconnection is a fundamental and omnipresent energy conversion process in plasma physics. Novel observations of fields and particles from Parker Solar Probe (PSP) have shown the absence of reconnection in a large number of current sheets in the near-Sun solar wind. Using near-Sun observations from PSP Encounters 4 to 11 (Jan 2020 to March 2022), we investigate whether reconnection onset might be suppressed by velocity shear. We compare estimates of the tearing mode growth rate in the presence of shear flow for time periods identified as containing reconnecting current sheets versus non-reconnecting times, finding systematically larger growth rates for reconnection periods. Upon examination of the parameters associated with reconnection onset, we find that 85% of the reconnection events are embedded in slow, non-Alfvenic wind streams. We compare with fast, slow non-Alfvenic, and slow Alfvenic streams, finding that the growth rate is suppressed in highly Alfvenic fast and slow wind and reconnection is not seen in these wind types, as would be expected from our theoretical expressions. These wind streams have strong Alfvenic flow shear, consistent with the idea of reconnection suppression by such flows. This could help explain the frequent absence of reconnection events in the highly Alfvenic, near-Sun solar wind observed by PSP. Finally, we find a steepening of both the trace and magnitude magnetic field spectra within reconnection periods in comparison to ambient wind. We tie this to the dynamics of relatively balanced turbulence within these reconnection periods and the potential generation of compressible fluctuations.

physics.space-ph↗

arXiv2025

Linear map-making with LuSEE-Night

LuSEE-Night is a pathfinder radio telescope on the lunar far side employing four 3-m monopole antennas arranged as two horizontal cross pseudo-dipoles on a rotational stage and sensitive to the radio sky in the 1-50 MHz frequency band. LuSEE-Night measures the corresponding 16 correlation products as a function of frequency. While each antenna combination measures radiation coming from a large area of the sky, their aggregate information as a function of phase in the lunar cycle and rotational stage position can be deconvolved into a low-resolution map of the sky. We study this deconvolution using linear map-making based on the Wiener filter algorithm. We illustrate how systematic effects can be effectively marginalised over as contributions to the noise covariance and demonstrate this technique on beam knowledge uncertainty and gain fluctuations. With reasonable assumptions about instrument performance, we show that LuSEE-Night should be able to map the sub-50 MHz sky at a ~5-degree resolution.

astro-ph.IM↗