A variability-aware simulation and design workflow for wafer-scale, heterogeneously integrated lithium niobate modulators
We present a variability-aware simulation framework for heterogeneously integrated lithium niobate traveling-wave modulators. The framework incorporates fabrication-variation data obtained from our dedicated pilot line and enables efficient optimisation of geometric parameters to ensure stable device performance across wafer-scale manufacturing. The proposed multi-parameter optimisation method enables the efficient identification of modulator designs that simultaneously achieve target performance metrics (Vpi, optical insertion loss, and 3dB electro-optic bandwidth) while maintaining robustness against fabrication-induced variations. Using this methodology on two representative modulator architectures, we theoretically demonstrate that reliable wafer-scale integration of lithium niobate modulators on silicon photonics via micro-transfer printing is feasible and can be systematically engineered.